Kurt Vonneguts Cats Cradle :: Kurt Vonnegut Cats Cradle Essays

Paradoxical Nature of Life Exposed in Kurt Vonnegut's Cat's Cradle Kurt Vonnegut's apocalyptic novel, Cat's Cradle, might well be called an intricate network of paradox and irony. It is with such irony and paradox that Vonnegut himself describes his work as "poisoning minds with humanity...to encourage them to make a better world" (The Vonnegut Statement 107). In Cat's Cradle, Vonnegut does not tie his co-mingled plots into easy to digest bites as the short chapter structure of his story implies. Rather, he implores his reader to resolve the paradoxes and ironies of Cat's Cradle by simply allowing them to exist. By drawing our attention to the paradoxical nature of life, Vonnegut releases the reader from the necessity of creating meaning into a realm of infinite possibility. It appears that Vonnegut sees the impulse toward making a better world as fundamental to the human spirit; that when the obstacle of meaning is removed the reader, he supposes, will naturally improve the world. Like a dream filled with complex characters and situations which one is compelled to discuss and analyze the next day, Vonnegut uses dark humor to penetrate his reader's world. The Cornell medical student whom the narrator, Jonah, first interviews by mail turns out to be a midget. The brilliant nuclear physicist, the father of the atom bomb, is infantile. Writers and college professors are essential to human existence, and Boko-maru is a form of love that can happen anytime, anywhere, and with anyone. By creating new religious and scientific vocabularies, Vonnegut infiltrates the reader's very mind. Bokononist ideas and principles that are almost reasonable give the reader a temporary framework for interpretation, "'As it was supposed to happen,' Bokonon would say" (Cat's Cradle 63). Never too far from reality, "Bokonon tells us that it is very wrong to not to love everyone exactly the same. What does your religion say?" (CC 141). Vonnegut's prophet cuts close to the bone, and so he must in order to reach the philosophical roots of the reader's belief system. Yet, the security of any and every belief and interpretation of any and all of the characters is in one way or another polluted until there is nowhere to turn.

English Lit Coursework Essay

Compare the ways in which the authors present contrasting worlds/ places and their thematic significance in Othello and two other texts. In all of the novels; ‘Othello’, ‘Wuthering Heights’ and ‘The Great Gatsby’, the authors, Shakespeare, Bronte and Fitzgerald, demonstrate how contrasting worlds disrupt equilibrium, especially the harmony or even possibility of relationships. The ultimate disruption within all of these texts is the barrier of class. In Wuthering Heights, Bronte compares the two houses; Wuthering Heights and Thrushcross Grange, to highlight the distance class creates between Heathcliff and Cathy, by embodying the characters and their values in the imagery of the houses. Wuthering Heights essentially is a deteriorating farm house. Bronte represents Heathcliff with this house, it’s anaesthetically pleasing and neglected, described as ‘a perfect misanthropist’s heaven’, giving reclusive and desolate connotations, reflecting the way Heathcliff becomes remote from society and isolated. On the other hand, Bronte describes Thrushcross Grange grandly, ‘carpeted with crimson’, ‘crimson covered chairs and tables’, this choice of colour gives rich connotations, of a ‘splendid place’, The choice of lexis ‘splendid’ giving an upper class tone . Nevertheless neither of Cathy or Heathcliff seems to prefer the luxurious Thrushcross Grange. Bronte does present Cathy to be superficial at times, but when Cathy tells Nelly about her dreams she explains that ‘heaven did not seem to be my home’ and that she ‘woke up sobbing for joy’ when she was flung ‘into the middle of the heath on top of Wuthering Heights’, Bronte uses this therefore to signify that Cathy sees Wuthering Heights and the moors as her heaven. Likewise she wants the window open when ill at Thrushcross Grange; here Bronte enforces the theme of imprisonment and entrapment, in a foreign world. Equally Thrushcross Grange has always been an alien and uncomfortable place to Heathcliff as we see when he chooses to grieve on the out skirting grounds of Thrushcross Grange in contrast with Edgar who stays inside. Nevertheless Bronte relates Cathy, a Linton to be, to Thrushcross Grange, a world of refinement and elegance, complimenting Cathy’s own descriptions as she grows into a lady Similarly to Wuthering Heights, Fitzgerald presents the comparison in class of two places, the buildings of East and West Egg in particular. West Egg is seen to be â€Å"the less fashionable of the two,† lacking in conventional aesthetics of refined and classy housing estates. This is shown by the fact Nick’s bungalow is carelessly built in the space between two mansions, this paints a garish image of clashing buildings. Whereas East Egg is ‘glittered’ with houses that are described as ‘white palaces’ with well kept lawns, suggesting well kept, good quality people, over all setting a lavish and opulent scene. Never the less, the houses themselves are concentrated on more so in Wuthering Heights as they are the dominant symbol of the two separate worlds, whereas Gatsby concentrates on the society around East Egg and West Egg, in order to emphasize the difference of the world Daisy and Tom inhabit in comparison to Gatsby’s world. Fitzgerald creates the symbolism of East and West Egg by choosing to rename Great Neck and Manhasset. West Egg is a place of newly rich settled opportunists, many like Gatsby who are seen to have acquired a fortune overnight and boast this through extravagant houses. West Egg has an overall vibrancy shown through ‘spectroscopic gayety’ with this Fitzgerald suggests a bright, colourful and energetic lifestyle. East Egg however is a fashionable part of Long Island, where the wealthy descendants, of a previous money making generation, live. In contrast with the West, they seem to be more withdrawn from enjoying themselves and proud of their ‘staid nobility’, with the exception of a few lapses at Gatsby’s parties. This lack of living for the moment comes across also in the way that they seem to want more in life in the East, but have no intentions of looking for it. Fitzgerald mocks the ambitionless simplicity of life that for example is demonstrated in Jordan and Daisy’s superficial conversation, ‘We ought to plan something’, ‘All right†¦ What’ll we plan? What do people plan? ‘ Similarly people lack genuine qualities, everything is based on etiquette and image, a prime example of this is when Mrs Sloane invites Gatsby to supper out of politeness but doesn’t expect him to actually come. Equally Shakespeare employs the theme of class, as a barrier between Othello and Desdemona, but unlike Bronte and Fitzgerald, he demonstrates the distinction through the discrimination drawn upon Othello. None the less, Shakespeare does use a comparison of two separate locations, Venice and Cypress. Shakespeare accomplishes a dramatic tone in the play Othello through the use of a variation of techniques, for example dramatic irony. Likewise Shakespeare uses contrasting worlds, for instance the contrast between Venice and Cyprus, Venice is portrayed to be a respected origin, it has a positive representation in the play, being the place in which Desdemona and Othello fell in love. Cypress on the other hand is surrounded in conflict, described as a ‘war-like isle’, a direct comparison to Venice; it is also the place where Othello and Desdemona’s love suffers. The two countries are essential to Shakespeare’s comparison between the worlds of war and love and how Othello struggles to find a balance between the two. ‘The warlike moor’ encounters the conflict between the roles of being an inexperienced loving husband and a hardened military soldier. He’s used to of course an all male environment, a soldier’s life style, uneducated in the domestic world of females. He can deal with the ‘flinty and steel couch of war’ yet is ‘little bless’d with the soft phrase of peace. Shakespeare devises Othello’s dialogue to show how he is more comfortable with language from the semantic field of war than pet nick names, calling Desdemona ‘My fair Warrior’. Othello may be respected for his military efforts, after all this is all we see him praised for, no credit is given to the fact he is marrying Desdemona even their wedding celebration is shared with a military celebration. Considering this Shakespeare presents him very much as an outsider, the only black protagonist, he doesn’t qualify as a gentleman, and is included in society purely as he is an acquaintance of Brabantio and Cassio.

Analyzing Language Different Types of Grammar

So you think you know grammar? All well and good, but which type of grammar do you know? Linguists are quick to remind us that there are different varieties of grammar--that is, different ways of describing and analyzing the structures and functions of language. One basic distinction worth making is that between descriptive grammar and prescriptive grammar (also called usage). Both are concerned with rules--but in different ways. Specialists in descriptive grammar examine the rules or patterns that underlie our use of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. In contrast, prescriptive grammarians (such as most editors and teachers) try to enforce rules about what they believe to be the correct uses of language. But thats just the beginning. Consider these varieties of grammar and take your pick. (For more information about a particular type, click on the highlighted term.) Comparative Grammar The analysis and comparison of the grammatical structures of related languages is known as comparative grammar. Contemporary work in comparative grammar is concerned with a faculty of language that provides an explanatory basis for how a human being can acquire a first language . . .. In this way, the theory of grammar is a theory of human language and hence establishes the relationship among all languages (R. Freidin, Principles and Parameters in Comparative Grammar. MIT Press, 1991). Generative Grammar Generative grammar includes the rules determining the structure and interpretation of sentences that speakers accept as belonging to the language. Simply put, a generative grammar is a theory of competence: a model of the psychological system of unconscious knowledge that underlies a speakers ability to produce and interpret utterances in a language (F. Parker and K. Riley, Linguistics for Non-Linguists. Allyn and Bacon, 1994). Mental Grammar The generative grammar stored in the brain that allows a speaker to produce language that other speakers can understand is mental grammar. All humans are born with the capacity for constructing a Mental Grammar, given linguistic experience; this capacity for language is called the Language Faculty (Chomsky, 1965). A grammar formulated by a linguist is an idealized description of this Mental Grammar (P. W. Culicover and A. Nowak, Dynamical Grammar: Foundations of Syntax II. Oxford University Press, 2003). Pedagogical Grammar Grammatical analysis and instruction designed for second-language students. Pedagogical grammar is a slippery concept. The term is commonly used to denote (1) pedagogical process--the explicit treatment of elements of the target language systems as (part of) language teaching methodology; (2) pedagogical content--reference sources of one kind or another that present information about the target language system; and (3) combinations of process and content (D. Little, Words and Their Properties: Arguments for a Lexical Approach to Pedagogical Grammar. Perspectives on Pedagogical Grammar, ed. by T. Odlin. Cambridge University Press, 1994). Performance Grammar A description of the syntax of English as it is actually used by speakers in dialogues. [P]erformance grammar . . . centers attention on language production; it is my belief that the problem of production must be dealt with before problems of reception and comprehension can properly be investigated (John Carroll, Promoting Language Skills. Perspectives on School Learning: Selected Writings of John B. Carroll, ed. by L. W. Anderson. Erlbaum, 1985). Reference Grammar A description of the grammar of a language, with explanations of the principles governing the construction of words, phrases, clauses, and sentences. Examples of contemporary reference grammars in English include A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language, by Randolph Quirk et al. (1985), the Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English (1999), and The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (2002). Theoretical Grammar The study of the essential components of any human language. Theoretical grammar or syntax is concerned with making completely explicit the formalisms of grammar, and in providing scientific arguments or explanations in favour of one account of grammar rather than another, in terms of a general theory of human language (A. Renouf and A. Kehoe, The Changing Face of Corpus Linguistics. Rodopi, 2003). Traditional Grammar The collection of prescriptive rules and concepts about the structure of the language. We say that traditional grammar is prescriptive because it focuses on the distinction between what some people do with language and what they ought to do with it, according to a pre-established standard. . . . The chief goal of traditional grammar, therefore, is perpetuating a historical model of what supposedly constitutes proper language (J. D. Williams, The Teachers Grammar Book. Routledge, 2005). Transformational Grammar A theory of grammar that accounts for the constructions of a language by linguistic transformations and phrase structures. In transformational grammar, the term rule is used not for a precept set down by an external authority but for a principle that is unconsciously yet regularly followed in the production and interpretation of sentences. A rule is a direction for forming a sentence or a part of a sentence, which has been internalized by the native speaker (D. Bornstein, An Introduction to Transformational Grammar. University Press of America, 1984) Universal Grammar The system of categories, operations, and principles shared by all human languages and considered to be innate. Taken together, the linguistic principles of Universal Grammar constitute a theory of the organization of the initial state of the mind/brain of the language learner--that is, a theory of the human faculty for language (S. Crain and R. Thornton, Investigations in Universal Grammar. MIT Press, 2000). If 10 varieties of grammar arent enough for you, rest assured that new grammars are emerging all the time. Theres word grammar, for instance. And relational grammar. Not to mention case grammar, cognitive grammar, construction grammar, lexical functional grammar, lexicogrammar,  head-driven phrase structure grammar and many more.

E Commerce A Market Scale - 1690 Words

E-commerce is generally viewed as exchange of goods or services through electronic networks or the internet. An estimated number of 2.4 billion users globally exchanges data on this platform with those known to be actively involved being teenagers and people at middle age who are pressed for time to create time for other activities and it is not only tedious but time consuming to go out shopping in physical stores. In a market scale this could be an astounding figure providing enormous market space. E-business can be used interchangeably with the term E-commerce with occasional use of the term e-tail to refer to online retailing activities. In a retail interest shopping carts are normally established upon which customer shopping habits†¦show more content†¦With the previously documented trend in the growth of e-commerce especially in the past five years the opportunity to trade in this platform is still open thereby eliminating the need to sell off a domain name shortly after you start your business online especially as far as clothing store is concerned at Jersey Shore broadways. Those in retail shops in the current times are yet to realize the significance of online shopping and the shift in shopping trends in the modern generation. In China for instance over 60% of young fashion enthusiasts have resorted to online shopping as it saves them the hustles of having to travel long distances to acquire the same cloth line that they could obtain and pay for in a click of a button with the convenience again of having the product delivered to their doorsteps (Eisingerich and Kretschmer, 2008). One designer and manager of e-commerce store, David Ferguson with over 10 years’ experience notes that most successful of his clients have been those willing to put hard work on the fore especially in the first two years of their venture as this is the most critical time when one is hoping to grow a brand or store for the future of the business. Those individuals hoping to visit Jersey Shore Broadway my need the service of the store since some might not be able to establish contact with the online to acquire

The Industrial Revolution through the Eyes of Charles Dickens

The Industrial Revolution generated the perception that applying solely logic to everyday activities could maximize productivity and efficiency. Charles Dickens explores the dangers of neglecting emotions and imagination in his novel Hard Times. Dickens separates Hard Times into three books: Sowing, Reaping and Garnering in order to reveal the negative consequences of industrialization and forsaking imagination for facts through the events, settings, and characters in the novel. In Book the First: Sowing, Dickens introduces the destructiveness of the wrong kind of education on innocent minds. The schoolmaster Mr. Gradgrind refuses to face reality by insisting on addressing Sissy Jupe by her formal name and changing Mr. Jupe’s occupation to one less involved with â€Å"fancy† (Dickens 7-8). The classroom, â€Å"a plain, bare, monotonous vault† and Mr. Gradgrind’s rigid, square, and dry appearance reflect the stringent, detached teachings of his philosophy (Dickens 6). The name Gradgrind epitomizes what his beliefs have made of him: a â€Å"fact machine,† a grinder of fact. In Chapter 2 â€Å"Murdering the Innocents†, Dickens compares Gradgrind to a loaded canon â€Å"prepared to blow [the children] clean out of the regions of childhood at one discharge† (Dickens 7). The metaphor reiterates the damage Gradgrind’s philosophy can cause, including slaughtering the imagination of children. Gradgrind’s ideology sickens his wife, a â€Å"little, thin, white, pink−eyed bundle of shawls, of surpassing feebleness,Show MoreRelatedAnalysis Of Charles Dickens s Oliver Twist 905 Words   |  4 Pagesquite certain that the earliest use of the word realism referred to the faith full representation of the real world in the literature beginning from the 1850 s. Charles dickens is one among the greatest well-known representatives of the 19th century English critical realism. In Victorian England realism is greeted by the work of Dickens. In his work, Oliver Twist (1838), he uses realism to represent the harsh realities of life during his lifetime. It is his first novel in which he reflect on theRead MoreHow Does The Author Use Language From Present Scrooge s Unpleasant Personality?1376 Words   |  6 PagesHow does the author use language to present Scrooge s unpleasant personality? Charles dickens uses insults to portray Scrooge s unpleasant personality. This can be alluded from Stave 1 in the novel where Scrooge can be seen snubbing the charity workers who came seeking for a donation. If they would rather die, [...] they had better do it, and decrease the surplus population., such insult allows the reader to comprehend that Scrooge is nothing more than a greedy man who solely believes that theRead MoreDickens Hard Times1535 Words   |  7 PagesDickens’ Hard Times â€Å"Now, what I want is, Facts. Teach these boys and girls nothing but Facts. Facts alone are wanted in life.† (Dickens, 1854, p.1) With these beginning sentences of the novel â€Å"Hard Times†, Charles Dickens has made readers doubt whether it is true that facts alone are wanted in life. This question leads to the main theme of the story, fact against fancy, that author has never been written this kind of plot in his other stories before. In fact, Hard Times is considered as theRead MoreCharles Dickens was one of the Brightest and Most Influential Writers of His Time1325 Words   |  5 Pages The British writer Charles Dickens was one of the brightest and most influential people of his time. His many writings, including Great Expectations and A Christmas Carol, have been efficacious in many lives and have created a legacy of classics that will be read forever. Dickens, who was born in Portsmouth, England, was raised in a poor family, in which he had to work instead of attending school. Although not being able to go to school was detrimental to Charles, it gave him a chance to begin hisRead MoreThe Effect s Of Industrialization On English Towns Essay1730 Words   |  7 PagesHard Times symbolizes the negative effects of industrialization on English towns (Coketown in the story) including education. Charles Dickens was born in 1812, and was a contemporary of the Industrial Revolution. Industries were growing by leaps and bounds; bringing with it pollution, social imbalance and individual confusion. Dickens was rather poor and had no proper education. At the age of 12 he worked in Warren’s Blacking Factory attaching labels to bottles. He labored hard to educate himselfRead MoreGreat Expectations by Charles Dickens Essay860 Words   |  4 PagesQueen Victoria was crowned. The Industrial Revolution also started in this era. Cities started to form and become heavily populated. In the novel, Great Expectations, Charles Dickens had the main character, Pip, live in two different life styles in the Victorian Era. Pip lived with both the poor and the rich population. Both life style s are very different and placing Pip in both societies helped to show that, while the wealthy people benefited from the industrial revolution, the poor people often paidRead MoreEssay on Historical People from the Victorian Era876 Words   |  4 Pagesculturally changed from rationalism from the prior era (Georgian period) toward â€Å"romanticism and mysticism with regard to religion, social values, and arts.† This was also a time of peace in international relationships and economic, colonial and industrial growth. The two most important in politics were the prime ministers Gladstone and Disraeli. Gladstone was a liberal and Disraeli was a conservatist. With their different views â€Å"they changed the course of history†. The population of England roseRead More Vivid Images of Character and Place in the Opening Chapter To Dickens Great Expectations1146 Words   |  5 PagesVivid Images of Character and Place in the Opening Chapter To Dickens Great Expectations The opening chapter to Great Expectations introduces Pip who is the main protagonist in the story. He is an orphan and lives with his sister Mrs Joe Gargery and her husband who is a blacksmith. The story is set in the graveyard in the time of the Industrial Revolution. In the opening chapter we also see Pip being introduced to a convict who is very poor but very rude to the child. TheRead MoreOliver Twist Characterization of the Criminal Mind In Charles Dickens novel, Oliver Twist,1600 Words   |  7 PagesTwist Characterization of the Criminal Mind In Charles Dickens novel, Oliver Twist, Dickens portrays the hardships of people in poverty during the Victorian era through Oliver and various characters throughout the novel. Oliver is born into a workhouse with no name where he is starved, beaten, and treated like a prisoner during the first ten years of his life. Dickens makes all his characters in the novel â€Å"†¦either a jailor or a prisoner, like Dickens himself both, the author and his turn key† (Lepore)Read MoreA Lack of Charity Essay example1718 Words   |  7 PagesIn Charles Dickens’s books, Oliver Twist and A Christmas Carol, the theme of lack of charity is pronounced. Throughout Oliver Twist, society turns a â€Å"cold shoulder† to those in need of help (Miller 30). The Victorian England society prohibits inhabitants of the lower social realms from moving up in society. Rarely do lower class members receive attention, and the attention they do receive is far from par (Reeves). Ebenezer Scro oge, the main character of A Christmas Carol, learns to be charitable

Policies and Procedures for Promoting Positive Behaviour Free Essays

Policies and procedures for promoting positive behaviour Policy/procedure |Summary | | | | | |Self esteem | | | | | |Valuing each child’s individuality, | | |Believing that children are capable of making choices, accepting responsibility and acting accordingly, | |Behaviour policy |Providing opportunities for success, | | |Viewing success in terms of personal progression rather than being in competition with others, | | |Praising achievements, | | |Promoting the acceptance of others, | | |Clearly demonstrating that we value their work, | | |Building into the curriculum activities which develop the child’s ability to express his/her feelings, through the sharing circle, co-operative games | | |and Drama. | | | | | |Physical environment | | | | |Attractive, comfortable well-resourced and well managed classrooms, | | |Displays of children’s work to show it is highly valued, | | |Tidy and accessible resources demonstrate that children are trusted to organis e themselves for work and that they know how to use and care for things. | | | | | | | | | | |Classroom management | | | | | |Work must be matched to their ability so that success is possible for all, | | |Children must know what they are doing and why, | | |Classroom rules are devised by children themselves to ensure standards of behaviour, | | |Rules should be few in number, prominently displayed and referred to often, | | |We must set high standards, praise quickly and consistently – looking out for and rewarding good behaviour, | | |We must be firm, fair and supportive, | |Know children as individuals, to be active listeners, to refer to the behaviour rather than the child, | | | | | |Be polite to everyone | |Code of conduct |Talk quietly and listen carefully | | |Always tell the truth | | |Treat others as you would wish them to treat you | | |Be patient and wait your turn | | | | |Rewards and sanctions |House points | | | | | |The children can earn house poi nts for:- | | | | | |Quality of work Good Behaviour | | |An excellent piece of work Being polite, etc. We will write a custom essay sample on Policies and Procedures for Promoting Positive Behaviour or any similar topic only for you Order Now | |An improving piece of work | | | | | |Dinner Supervisors Stickers | | | | | |Dinner supervisors can award stickers for good behaviour during lunchtime. | | | | | | | |Barney Stickers | | | | | |This is Crooksbarn School’s main method of rewarding positive behaviour. It is used by the class teacher throughout the school and indicates | | |excellent standards of work and/or behaviour by a child. Only 1 may be awarded each day, the children can wear them for 1 day then they are | | |transferred to a collecting chart displayed in the classroom. Once the child has succeeded in gaining 3 ‘Barnies’ he/she is awarded a ‘Head Teacher’s| | |Barney that is presented by the Head Teacher at the whole school assembly on Monday Mornings. An additional award is given out by the Head Teacher to| | |any child who has gained 9 ‘Barnies’ during the course of the school year | | | | | |Get rid of anyone not involved in the conflict as violence thrives on witnesses. | |Don’t put yourself at risk, alert colleagues, enlist their help. | |Dealing with conflict and inappropriate behaviour |Asses a situation first. | | |Be calm, don’t take it personally. | | |Use verbal intervention first. | | |It may be worse to add another person to a gang situation, if it cannot be sorted out and the conflict/inappropriate behaviour goes out of your | | |control call another member of staff and in the worse case scenario call the police. | | | | |Positively encourage the caring and nurturing side of child ren whilst openly and actively discourage bullying | | |Work for a caring, cooperative ethos (home corner, paired, group work etc. ) | |Anti-bullying |Discuss friendships – this should be covered through PSHE and citizenship scheme of work. However, children should receive regular reminders of this. | | |Ensure adequate supervision in playgrounds. | |Value and encourage being different and having high self-esteem. | | | | | | | | |Helping to create a pattern of regular attendance is everybody’s responsibility, parents, pupils and all members of school staff, | |Attendance |To help us focus on this we will report to arents/carers annually on their child’s attendance with the annual school report, | | |Contact the parent/carer if their child’s attendance falls below the school’s target for attendance, | | |Celebrate good attendance by displaying individual and class achievements, | | |Reward good or improving attendance through class competitions , certificates and outings/events. | | |Every half-day absence from school has to be classified by the school (not the parents), as either AUTHORISED or UNAUTHORISED. This is why | | |information about the cause of any absence is always required, | | |Any periods of leave taken without the agreement of the school, or in excess of that agreed, will be classed as unauthorised and may attract sanctions| | |such as a Penalty Notice. | | |The minimum level of attendance for any child at Crooksbarn School is 90% attendance | How to cite Policies and Procedures for Promoting Positive Behaviour, Papers

Process Safety in Oil and Gas Operations free essay sample

Process safety management system (PSM) has received greater attention in the oil and gas industry because of the major memorable accidents that have occurred within the industry and the severity of their impacts on stakeholders. The Bhopal gas tragedy which occurred in December 1984 from the release of methyl Isocyanates (MIC) where over two thousand people died and the Flixborough disaster which also happened on 1974 where about twenty eight workers were killed and thirty six workers suffered from serious injuries alerted the essence of PSM in the operations of not only oil and gas activities but in other process industries (Hackitt 2010). The application of PSM has been steered by organizations like the American Institute of Chemical Engineers; Center for Process Safety, as a management system to manage hazardous processes. PSM is a proactive approach which seeks to identify and manage hazards, risks and safety during operational activities in order to prevent process and equipment failure, major injuries and fatalities (Harry 2003). It is aimed at developing plants and processes to prevent the release of highly hazardous chemicals (HHC) during operations which could lead to dangerous effects, fires and explosions (Bureau Veritas 2010). PSM addresses matters that relates to operability, stability and quality of processes and its merit goes beyond prevention of accidents to increase productivity, quality improvement, waste and cost reduction (Cockburn 2011). The mention of major accidents within the oil and gas industry brings one question to mind- what went wrong? And in response, it is obvious that their occurrences are connected to issues concerning PSM systems. This article discusses process safety management in oil and gas operations: the past, present and future directions. Referrals to major accidents would be made to exhibit the trend of process safety in oil and gas operations. 2. 0Process Safety Management in Past Operations of Oil and Gas Companies The oil and gas industry has experienced numerous catastrophic events which their occurrences could have been prevented. A greater percentage of accidents that occur during operations are process related accidents of which their extreme impact has led to the drains of financial resources and reputation of most oil and gas companies. A typical example cited is the Piper Alpha disaster in 1984 and the explosion at British Petroleum (BP) Texas Refinery in 2005. 2. 1Oil and Gas Companies Mistook Process Safety for Personal Safety Most oil and gas companies concentrated largely on personal safety than process safety and for this reason; mistakenly perceived that records of no loss time injury, no recordable injury frequency were indicators of standard process safety performance (Baker et al 2007). Hackitt (1993) comments that the insufficiency measurement of process safety led to the believe that rarely do new accidents occur however accidents are repeatedly happening because people leave the company and take the knowledge about process safety with them. From this, it could be deduced that the knowledge about process safety was lacking within the industry. Again, oil and gas companies perceived safety to be concerned with personal safety but not related to their processes. This could be that they relied much on information system manufacturers’ provided about their systems and for that matter failed to provide additional safety in their systems and processes. 2. 2Poor Process Safety Culture and Unsafe Work Practices A typical example can be cited from the events surrounding the Piper Alpha disaster where a relief valve in the pump was removed for maintenance and a blank was loosely installed as a replacement of the relief valve on the piping flange (CCPS 2005). In addition, the culture of ignoring near misses and incidents as not having the potential to cause harm is what can be said of process safety in previous operations of oil and gas companies (Pate-Cornell 1991). Also, due to poor process safety culture, BP didn’t have a process safety audit system which could have revealed all the inherent hazards and risk associated with their operations and for this matter the accident at the Texas City refinery happened (Baker et al 2007). It is obvious that the poor process safety culture made management and operators in the oil and gas sector to under estimate the role process failure could lead to accidents. Again, USW (2007) reports that most Oil and Gas refineries in the United States practice bad process safety systems where most refineries used atmospheric vents on their process units which accounted to the release of untreated flammable and dangerous substances. It continues to report that work tool trailers were located closely to process nits thereby exposing them to dangerous conditions and also permitted unqualified workers to work in risky areas during operations. Moreover, plants were modified without thorough risk assessments, failure to conduct pressure test after installing new pipework at Flixborough (Hackitt 2010) was another poor process safety practice. This poor process safety practice was the root cause of the explosion. It can be said that the poor practices of process safety was due to unawareness that processes could go wrong. 2. 3Complex Processes and Plants Design According to Hopkins (2007) the complexity of processes and plants design caused process related accidents to happen. Hackitt (2006) consents that process control and safeguarding equipment have also become complex thereby increasing the risk involved in their operations. It can be argued to an extent that the complexity and design of plants and systems have been established for safety reasons and with its material safety data sheet (MSDS) the level of risk may reduce. Again, the complexity of the processes was handed by workers who didn’t have adequate knowledge and expertise on process safety. Apart from this, misconceptions that redundancies are meant for safety purposes and for that matter the possibility of accident happening is rare demonstrates how process safety was taken for granted in past operations of oil and gas companies. For example, in the Piper Alpha disaster, it was believed that automatic shut down and alarm systems were enough to prevent the accident (Pate-Cornell 1991). 2. 4 Non- compliance of Process Safety Guidelines and Regulations Oil and gas companies operating in the downstream did not comply with process safety guidelines and regulations . Occupational health and safety administration’s (OSHA) standards on hazardous waste operation and emergency response and PSM of highly hazardous chemicals; and Environmental Protection Agency’s Risk Management Programs were overlooked. These regulations provide refineries to undertake effective PSM in all their operations so as to reduce accidents (USW 2007). It could be explained that most companies where seeking to maximize profits at the expense of protecting their equipment and processes; they were pursuing cost cutting strategy as they perceived process safety to be costly and technical to deal with (Baker et al 2007). However, the existence of these regulations were not enough to ensure their compliance, there were no regular monitoring systems in place to check those operations which violated the regulations. It is believed that if the guidelines and regulations were strictly enforced with effective monitoring systems then most oil and gas refineries would have no reason not to comply by them. The challenge is that such regulations and guidelines are not to be legally enforced as they are voluntary policies. The Current State of Process Safety Management in Oil and Gas Operations There has been a radical shift towards the intensification of process safety within oil and gas activities by way of correcting past mistakes and changing the old ways of doing things. PSM has gained holistic attention which is integrated into offshore and onshore activities. 3. 1Intensification of Process Safety Management System in Oil and Gas Operations Personal safety performance is not considered to be process safety performance. Process safety is now given a different attention. Thus, PSM is integrated in oil and gas operations in addition to personal safety. To improve the current state of process safety performance, inherent safety management system has been integrated into PSM. This however presents its own challenge. Oil and gas companies are developing different strategies to improve process safety in their operations. For example, Process safety in Royal Dutch Shell is centered towards design integrity, asset integrity, operating integrity, technical integrity and leadership integrity where it continually monitors its process safety performance in its operations. The current state of process safety in the operations of oil and gas companies is evident by current level of process safety leadership demonstrated by top management of oil and gas companies. The need for leadership commitment in PSM has been addressed within the industry. Most chief executive officers and top managers have been trained about the importance of PSM and how to manage process safety at all levels of the organisation (Hackitt 2010). It is believed that this will avoid making poorly informed decisions which in effect will avoid the occurrences of unforeseen disasters. For example, management of BP provide effective leadership through the establishment of desirable goals and infusing into the mindset of its workforce that process accidents is not tolerable in the organization and through the continually communication with line managers, supervisors and staff process safety awareness has deepened (Baker Panel 2007). It can be questioned that how then did the Macondo blow out in the Gulf of Mexico in 2010 occur if BP has improved its process safety leadership and commitments? Process safety leadership and commitment is a challenge which is currently facing the industry. In addition, the key programme three (KP3) review indicates that the role of leadership in integrity management have been developed within the industry and has led to include asset integrity in its key performance indicators of which in effect improves the quality of information on process safety not only to top managers but employees as well (HSE 2009). Not only has process safety leadership improved but the commitments demonstrated by oil and gas companies have contributed to improve PSM system through investments in process safety. For instance, in 2006, Shell invested $6 billion to improve process safety in its upstream facilities and in 2010 invested $1 billion to improve safety and reliability of its refinery, chemical plants and distribution facilities (Shell n. d). 3. 4Process Hazards Identification Techniques Again, process risk assessment through the application of process hazards identification tools have been integrated comprehensively into oil and gas activities. The focus on process hazards identification techniques have been intensified through the application of layer of protection analysis (LOPA), hazard identification (HAZID), hazards and operability (HAZOP) and fault tree analysis (FTA). These techniques are continually modified to identify and assess all risk associated with processes, plants and systems (NPRA 2010). It can be said that these techniques have helped to identify and manage risks, near-misses and incidents which could have led to repeat major catastrophe. This does not imply accidents are not happening within the industry but it can be said that these techniques are used to reduce the likelihood and severity of dangerous occurrences; nevertheless they have their own limitations. 3. 5Process Safety Culture and Practice In addition, there has been the call for process safety culture by all stakeholders involved in oil and gas operations. The results of safety culture surveys are communicated to all stakeholders and there has been a constant review of process safety policies and practices. The approach to effective PSM systems has moved from compliance to a state where process safety is owned by management and employees. The KP3 survey reports that safety culture has improved within offshore activities. This has been enhanced due to current industry guidance on NRB policies ‘not required back’ of which continues to be a major policy which is expected to be implemented worldwide (HSE 2009). The impact of technical competence and training of employees to improve process safety culture have not been underestimated. Operating essential training and core technical training are periodically provided to employees to increase their awareness on process safety (Oxley 2010). In United Kingdom, minimum industry safety training (MIST) has been provided for most offshore employees to improve upstream safety (Oil and Gas 2009). 4. 0Future Direction of Process Safety Management in Oil and Gas Operations The way forward for PSM in the oil and gas sector will depend on process safety leadership (despite the fact that process safety leadership has improved) and how PSM will be prioritised in corporate agenda. Process safety leadership will be driven by core values of oil and gas companies where safety design and engineering would be integrated into companies’ policies and strategies (Hackitt 2010). Demonstration of leadership commitment through the allocation of resources to improve assets integrity and the constant monitoring of operations is the bedrock for process safety in the future (Chevron 2006). It can be said that the focus on performance indicators in oil and gas operations will also provide feedback to management about process safety performance. Oxley (2010) consents that performance indicators like risk matrix and process safety events will be useful in oil and gas operations. Leadership in PSM will be enhanced with the awareness that profit is closely related to the integrity of processes and systems and where there is a continuous learning curve in the organisation (Hackitt 2010). Not only learning from incidence and near misses or fatal injuries but also sharing information and learning about the best industry practices on process safety and how these practices can be improved continually. The journey to PSM will also depend on Technology and Innovations within the industry. It is believed that new technologies and inventions will help improve PSM in oil and gas operations. New technologies will find solutions to current challenges pertaining to process safety (Hackitt 2010). 5. 0Conclusion The oil and gas industry has suffered numerous major accidents which could have been prevented if PSM systems were holistically integrated into their operations. The occurrences of memorable disasters like Flixborough disaster, Bhopal gas tragedy, Piper Alpha disaster, BP Texas City refinery explosion, Macondo blowout have alerted the industry to modify its safety management system hence the need to pay significant attention to PSM systems to prevent the occurrences of similar disasters. PSM systems in recent operations of oil and gas companies have been modified and improved, however, still seeks for continuous improvements for better sustainability of energy resources. It may be recommended that attention on process safety should not discontinue the importance of personal safety in the industry.