Challenges to the pharmaceutical industry's blockbuster-driven Research Paper

Challenges to the pharmaceutical industry's blockbuster-driven business model, and the effectiveness of GlaxoSmithKline's st - Research Paper Example After discussing the challenges associated with the use of the Blockbuster-Driven Business Model, the effectiveness of GSK’s strategies to meet these challenges will be tackled in details. 2. About the Company: Business Press and Analyst’s Narratives on GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) and Its Business Performance (i.e. Sales Revenue, Stock Prices, and Market Share) Based in Britain, GlaxoSmithKline (GSK) is a science-based health care company that aims to develop a wide-range of medicines through product researches and innovation (GSK, 2013a). Serving 115 countries worldwide, GSK is one of the top three biggest pharmaceutical companies around the world (GSK, 2013a ; Gilbert, Henske and Singh, 2003). To develop and innovate new drugs, GSK spent as much as ?4 billion in 2002 (GSK, 2013a). Back in July 1986, the share price of GSK was only 7.31 (Yahoo, 2013). Since January 1992, GSK’s share price has been fluctuating due to a series of merger and acquisition, expiry of patent s, heavy investment on new drug innovation, and tight competition in the market. Between 1979 to 1993, GSK filed 6 patents on Augmentin (Community Catalyst, n.d.). As a result, GSK’s share price started to increase in December 1992 at 30.75. ... It was between 1994 to 1995 when GSK contested their point-of-views with the federal appeals court concerning the legal issues behind patent infringement on one of their famous ulcer drug called Zantac (Los Angeles Times, 1995). Since the federal appeals court supported the arguments made by GSK, Novopharm – a Canadian company was not allowed to sell the generic version of Zantac in the U.S. throughout the period when the patent right is still effective (Los Angeles Times, 1995). One of the possible reasons why GSK’s share price significantly decreased from 69.50 in December 1998 down to 48.75 in February 2000 and 35.05 in February 2003 was because of patent litigation of GSK’s Paxil (Evaluate, 2002). In relation to the expiration of GSK’s patent on Advair in 2010, GSK’s share price has also significantly decreased from 42.29 in December 14, 2009 down to the lowest point at 33.46 in May 24, 2010 (Yahoo, 2013). Because of GSK’s business strate gy, this company managed to gradually increase its share price up to 52.51 in December 2013. Since it takes 10 years for GSK to develop new patented drug (Williams et al., 2008), this company has been continuously developing other promising drug that can compete or even better than their existing â€Å"blockbuster† drugs. (See Chart I – Historical Trend of GSK’s Share Price below) Chart I – Historical Trend of GSK’s Share Price Source: Yahoo, 2013 One of GSK’s â€Å"blockbuster† drugs was the Advair Diskus – an inhaler which can be used in the treatment of chronic asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) such as bronchitis or emphysema (Kitamura, 2013; Recruiting Experts Worldwide, 2013). Costing roughly US$300 per dose, the selling of

Evaluating Aristotle Essay Example for Free

Evaluating Aristotle Essay Far from being a social constraint, or perhaps a force that elicits fear of being caught, the motives that move a person to choose what is good and avoid what is evil draw well the fine line that separates actions that may be regarded as moral, or those that are immoral. Ethics is important, if not necessary in relation to human living. At the very least, this science helps maintain the fundamental order of and within a society. This is possible because ethics is not only a theory that informs people about what is good or bad, it also asks them to adhere to the principles it teaches. It is thus both informative and formative, or both a theory and practice, consistent with how it is commonly defined: â€Å"the discipline dealing with what is good and bad, and with moral duty and obligation† (Merriam-Webster). But what would perhaps be an equally interesting point to look at is the diverging manner by which many people believe to be the basis of moral action. Key to understanding this would be to ask: why be moral? It may help to cite three notable thinkers who have given their own take of the matter. Aristotle, Immanuel Kant and John Stuart Mill on Ethics Aristotle’s most eloquent articulation of his ethical theories figures in his infamous work called Nicomachean Ethics. In it, his overarching concern to prove that ethics is chiefly related to the concept of â€Å"ends† (or purposes) can be learned. According to Aristotle, every human activity hopes to achieve the â€Å"end† or the â€Å"good† to which it is pursued – e. g. , â€Å"in medicine this is health, in strategy victory, in architecture a house† (Nicomachean Ethics, 7). While Aristotle further contends that there are activities which are pursued for its own sake – and not for the sake of arriving at a good apart from the activities themselves (Nicomachean Ethics, 1) – his work manifests a greater emphasis laid on the goal-orientedness of all human activities. Now, Aristotle further maintains that human life too has an inherent end that needs to be pursued. He thinks of this fundamental human good as happiness – â€Å"the best, noblest, and most pleasant thing in the world† (Nicomachean Ethics, 8). And he himself argues that it is an end that must be pursued not for the sake of anything else, but precisely because it is a chief good in itself (Nicomachean Ethics, 7). Ethics for Aristotle is therefore basically a virtuous accordance of all human activities relative to happiness. This is where his virtue ethics takes shape. In order for all men to attain happiness, Aristotle believes that everyone needs to develop a virtue – a habit of acting that promotes an excellence in one’s use of reason. This is what Aristotle in essence implies when he says that â€Å"happiness is an activity of soul in accordance with perfect virtue† (Nicomachean Ethics, 13). Immanuel Kant’s is a philosopher who elevated ethics into the realm of metaphysics – that is, it is a science drawn from a priori principles (read: from demonstration or logic and not from a particular experiences) but are applied to definite situations in life as well (Kant, 1). This implies that ethics is something that must be applied for all men, in all places, and at all times. Simply put, ethics for Immanuel Kant is both necessary and universal in scope. It is necessary because all men are obliged by the dictates of their reason to obey moral laws; it is universal because moral laws care for no exception. Which is why, Kant believes that moral laws are â€Å"categorical imperatives† – a law that â€Å"concerns not the matter of the action, nor its intended result, but its form and the principle of which it is itself a result†, because it is â€Å"conceived as good in itself† and that it conforms to reason (Kant, 18-19). If only to clarify, Kant here states that a moral law must be obeyed neither on account of the benefit it brings nor the pleasure it elicits, but precisely because it is good in itself. In a way, a moral law is an empty formulation about duty; meaning, it is something that needs to be obeyed on account of nothing else but the adherence to the law itself. Should it be asked how one can arrive at a knowledge of moral law which is both necessary and universal, Immanuel Kant suggests that one can test human actions in reference to, say, this particular formulation: â€Å"act only on a maxim that you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law† (Kant, 23). John Stuart Mill meanwhile proposes a philosophy of ethics based on a more utilitarian perspective. In his work entitled Utilitarianism, he regards the outcome of an activity as the basis for evaluating the ethical repercussions of any action. He articulate this idea quite clearly in saying, â€Å"†¦utility or Happiness (must be) considered as the directive rule of human conduct† (Mill). In other words, ethics is based on how one carefully weighs in the maximum amount of happiness that may result from choosing an action, against the background of a host of alternative options. He even calls this approach the â€Å"Greatest Happiness Principle† – the â€Å"ultimate end with reference to and for the sake of which† all human activities become â€Å"desirable† (Mill). It works under the premise that before a person acts, he or she would have first appreciated which decision would turn in the best returns or outcomes, both in terms of quality and quality. Mill’s ethical philosophy, one may quickly notice, runs in serious contradiction with Aristotle and Kant, whose theories have taught the necessity of adhering to a virtuous life or to a moral imperative not on account of any purpose, but solely because of good inherent in the act itself. As Mill himself notes, â€Å"according to the utilitarian opinion, the end of human action, is necessarily also the standard of morality† (Mill). By Way of Conclusion: My Definition of Ethics Based on the above discussed ethical notions – its basis, nature and implications – I wish to conclude this paper with a proposal to define ethics as a norm that forms human freedom and, like Immanuel Kant, a law that must be universal and categorical. Firstly, I find that the tendency to define morality in terms of obligation does not at times appreciate the full weight of human freedom. But morality is precisely a human endeavor not only because humans have reason, but more importantly because actions stem from the fundamental use freedom as well. Moral acts, one must carefully note, are arrived at only with the proper education and nurturance of human freedom. It is in fact drawn from the basic premise that human freedom is at its best when one is able to use it to build up one’s welfare, as well as those of others. I am of the opinion that anyone who wish to expound on the ethical standards of an action must first begin with the evaluation of human freedom. In this way, ethics can shed light into the need to use the faculty of freewill for the sake of the goodness inherent in itself – as Aristotle and Kant have argued –, and directed towards the goodness of something else – as Mill has on the other hand proposed. Second, in an ethical theory where human freedom is of critical importance, it is thus wise to adopt the logic from which Immanuel Kant derives his categorical imperative. As one would notice, Kant’s maxim â€Å"do something as though you would want that action be done for all people† touches on two fundamental areas of ethics – the decision of the person, or human freedom, and the universality of the scope of moral laws. I find Kant here to be a great source of insight. With his theory, I believe that I can adopt the position that ethics is a science that forms human freedom because, in Kant’s maxim, the subjective capacity for self-determination is tempered by the duty to obey objective laws. Kant’s categorical imperative does little to undermine freedom, as it does try hard to protect the universal applicability of moral law. In this regard, I would therefore say that Kant’s ethical theory is the best position to take, at least from the perspective of ethical notion that I have chosen to adopt. References Aristotle. â€Å"Nicomachean Ethics†. 29 June 2008, http://classics. mit. edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen. 1. i. html â€Å"ethic. † Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. 2008. Merriam-Webster Online. 29 June 2008 http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/ethic Kant, Immanuel. â€Å"Fundamental Principles of the Metaphysic of Morals†. 29 June 2008 http://www. scribd. com/doc/2225702/kantfundamental143 Mill, J. S. â€Å"Utilitarianism†. 29 June 2008 http://utilitarianism. org/mill2. htm

The History And Uses Of Bioremediation

The History And Uses Of Bioremediation The past decade has shown, in greater or lesser degree, our carelessness and negligence in using our natural resources. The problems associated with contamination of natural resources are prominently increasing in many countries. Contaminated environment generally result from production, use, and disposal of hazardous substances from industrial activities. The problem is worldwide, and the estimated number of contaminated sites is significant. It is now widely recognized that contaminated environment is a potential threat to human health, and its continual discovery over recent years has led to international efforts to remedy many of these sites, to enable the site to be redeveloped for use. To bioremediate, means to use living things to eliminate environmental contamination such as contaminated soil or groundwater. Some microorganisms that live in soil and groundwater naturally eat certain chemicals that are harmful to people and the environment. The microorganisms are able to change these chemicals into water and harmless gases, such as carbon dioxide. Plants can also be used to clean up soil, water or air; this is called phytoremediation Bioremediation is an option that offers the possibility to destroy or render harmless various con ­taminants using natural biological activity. As such, it uses relatively low-cost, low-technology tech ­niques, which generally have a high public acceptance and can often be carried out on site. It will not always be suitable, however, as the range of contaminants on which it is effective is limited, the time scales involved are relatively long, and the residual contaminant levels achievable may not always be appropriate. Although the methodologies employed are not technically complex, considerable experi ­ence and expertise may be required to design and implement a successful bioremediation program, due to the need to thoroughly assess a site for suitability and to optimize conditions to achieve a satisfacto ­ry result. Bioremediation has been used at a number of sites worldwide Here, we intended to assist by providing a straightforward, pragmatic view of the processes involved in bioremediation, the pros and cons of the technique, and the issues to be considered when dealing with a proposal for bioremediation. HISTORY Bioremediation has been described as a treatability technology that uses biological activity to reduce the concentration or toxicity of a pollutant. It commonly uses processes by which microorganisms transform or degrade chemicals in the environment (King 1). This use of microorganisms (mainly bacteria) to destroy or transform hazardous contaminants is not a new idea. Microorganisms have been used since 600 B.C. by the Romans and others to treat their wastewater. Although this same technology is still usedtoday to treat wastewater it has been expanded to treat an array of other contaminants. In fact, bioremediation has been used commercially for almost 30 years. The first commercial use of a bioremediation system was in 1972 to clean up a Sun Oil pipeline spill in Ambler, Pennsylvania CONVENTIONAL STRATEGIES OF REMEDIATION The conventional techniques used for remediation have been to dig up contaminated soil and remove it to a landfill, or to cap and contain the contaminated areas of a site. The methods have some drawbacks. The first method simply moves the contamination elsewhere and may create significant risks in the excavation, handling, and transport of hazardous material. Additionally, it is very difficult and increasingly expensive to find new landfill sites for the final disposal of the material. The cap and contain method is only an temporary solution since the contamination remains on site, requiring monitor ­ing and maintenance of the isolation barriers long into the future, with all the associated costs and potential liability. A better approach than these traditional methods is to completely destroy the pollutants if possi ­ble, or at least to transform them to innocuous substances. Some technologies that have been used are high-temperature incineration and various types of chemical decomposition (e.g., base-catalyzed dechlorination, UV oxidation). They can be very effective at reducing levels of a range of contaminants, but have several drawbacks, principally their technological complexity, the cost for small-scale appli ­cation, and the lack of public acceptance, especially for incineration that may increase the exposure to contaminants for both the workers at the site and nearby residents. Conventional ways of Bioremediation Dig up and remove it to a landfill Risk of excavation, handling and transport of hazardous material Very expensive to find another land to finally dispose these materials Cap and contain the contaminated area. Maintain it in the same land but isolate it Only an temporary solution Requires monitoring and maintenance of isolation barriers for a long time Better approaches: Destroy them completely, if possible Transform them in to harmless substances Drawbacks Technological complexity The cost for small scale application expensive Lack of public acceptance especially in incineration Incineration generates more toxic compounds Materials released from imperfect incineration cause undesirable imbalance in the atmosphere. Ex. Ozone depletion Fall back on earth and pollute some other environment Dioxin production due to burning of plastics leads to cancer May increase the exposure to contaminants, for both workers and nearby residents PRINCIPLES OF BIOREMEDIATION Figure 1: Bioremediation Triangle There are three essential components needed for bioremediation. These three components are microorganisms, food, and nutrients. These three main components shown in Figure 1 are known as the bioremediation triangle. Microorganisms are found almost everywhere on earth with the exception of active volcanoes. So a lack of food and nutrients are usually the missing ingredients that prevent successful bioremediation. Microorganisms find the food they eat in the soil or water where they live. However, if a contaminant is present it can become an additional food source for the microorganisms. The contaminant serves two useful purposes for the microbes. First, the contaminant provides a source of carbon needed for growth. Second,the microbes obtain energy by breaking chemical bonds and transferring electrons away from the contaminant. This is known as an oxidation-reduction reaction. The contaminant that loses electrons is oxidized and the chemical that gains the electrons(electron acceptor) is reduced. The energy gained from the electron transfer is used along with the carbon and some electrons to produce more cells. Microbes generally use oxygenas an electron acceptor but nitrate, sulfate, iron, and CO2 are also commonly used. The use of oxygen as an electron acceptor is called aerobic respiration. The major byproducts of aerobic respiration are carbon dioxide, water, and an increase in the microbe population. Anaerobic respiration uses nitrate, sulfate, iron, or CO2 as the electron acceptor instead of oxygen. Anaerobic respiration can occur after the oxygen has been depleted by aerobic respiration or where there is not sufficient oxygen in the first place. The process of anaerobic degradation has been ignored for many years. However, recently it has been gaining more attention; There are also several nutrients that must be accessible to the microorganisms for bioremediation to be successful. These include moisture, nitrogen, phosphorus, and other trace elements. Microorganisms like other organisms need moisture to survive and grow.In addition, microbes depend on the moisture to transport food to them since they do not have mouths. The optimal moisture content for microbes in the vadose zone has been determined to be between 10 and 25% (King 16). Besides moisture, nitrogen (ammonia)and phosphorus (orthophosphate) are two major nutrients needed for the microorganisms. The microorganisms also require minor elements such as sulfur, potassium, magnesium,calcium, manganese, iron, cobalt, copper, nickel, and zinc (King 19). However, these minor elements are usually available in the environment in sufficient amounts where nitrogen and phosphorus may be lacking and need to be added. There are many contaminants susceptible to bioremediation. Petroleum hydrocarbons, i n particular, benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylene (BTEX), the major components of gasoline, have been biodegraded using this technology. In addition, alcohols, ketones, and esters are well established as being biodegradable by microorganisms. Many other contaminants are emerging as treatable using bioremediation such as halogenated aliphatics, halogenated aromatics, polychlorinated biphenyls, and nitroaromatics. FACTORS AFFECTING BIOREMEDIATION The factors affecting bioremediation can be divided into following categories. Microbial factors Environmental factors Microbial Factors Microorganisms can be isolated from almost any environmental conditions. Microbes will adapt and grow at subzero temperatures, as well as extreme heat, desert conditions, in water, with an excess of oxygen, and in anaerobic conditions, with the presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream. The main requirements are an energy source and a carbon source. Because of the adaptability of microbes and other biological systems, these can be used to degrade or remediate environmental hazards. We can subdivide these microorganisms into the following groups Aerobic Anaerobic Ligninolytic Fungi Methylotrophs Aerobic These microbes have often been reported to degrade pesticides and hydrocarbons, both alkanes and polyaromatic compounds. Many of these bacteria use the contaminant as the sole source of carbon and energy. Examples of aerobic bacteria recognized for their degradative abilities are Pseudomonas, Alcaligenes, Sphingomonas, Rhodococcus, and Mycobacterium. Anaerobic Anaerobic bacteria are not as frequently used as aerobic bacteria. There is an increasing interest in anaerobic bacteria used for bioremediation of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in river sediments, dechlorination of the solvent trichloroethylene (TCE), and chloroform. Ligninolytic fungi Fungi such as the white rot fungus Phanaerochaete chrysosporium have the ability to degrade an extremely diverse range of persistent or toxic environmental pollutants. Common substrates used include straw, saw dust, or corn cobs. Methylotrophs Aerobic bacteria that grow utilizing methane for carbon and energy. The initial enzyme in the pathway for aerobic degradation, methane monooxygenase, has a broad substrate range and is active against a wide range of compounds, including the chlorinated aliphatics trichloroethylene and 1,2-dichloroethane. For degradation it is necessary that bacteria and the contaminants be in contact. This is not easily achieved, as neither the microbes nor contaminants are uniformly spread in the soil. Some bacteria are mobile and exhibit a chemotactic response, sensing the contaminant and moving toward it. Other microbes such as fungi grow in a filamentous form toward the contaminant. It is possible to enhance the mobilization of the contaminant utilizing some surfactants such as sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) Microbes are used to degrade gasoline, the most common contaminant of groundwater in the United States. Adding powdered seaweed to DDT-contaminated soil boosts the cleaning activity of DDT-eating microbes. In one test site, 80% of the DDT was removed after six weeks. Microbes and fungi are used in air filters to control odours from sewage treatment plants and in the paint industry. A gene for a protein found in rat livers that binds with toxic metals has been inserted in both tobacco plants and algae. With this gene, the tobacco plant and the algae are able to extract several hundred times more toxic metal compounds from soil or water compared to plants without the gene. One particular microbe degrades polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), which are cancer-causing petroleum by-products. The microbes, called simply sulfate-reducers, are able to attack PAHs in the sediment of Boston Harbor where scientists thought the contaminant could not be treated due to lack of oxygen. Examples of microbes used for bioremediation include: Deinococcus radiodurans bacteria have been genetically modified to digest solvents and heavy metals, as well as toluene and ionic mercury from highly radioactive nuclear waste. Geobacter sufurreducens bacteria can turn uranium dissolved in groundwater into a non-soluble, collectable form. Dehalococcoides ethenogenes bacteria are being used in ten states to clean up chlorinated solvents that have been linked to cancer. The bacteria are naturally found in both soil and water and are able to digest the solvents much faster than using traditional clean-up methods. Thermus brockianus, found in Yellowstone National Park, produces an enzyme that breaks down hydrogen peroxide 80,000 times faster than current chemicals in use. Alcaligenes eutrophus, naturally degrades 2,4-D, the third most widely used herbicide in the U.S. Some contaminants potentially suitable for bioremediation. Class of contaminants Specific examples Aerobic Anaerobic Potential sources Chlorinated solvents Trichloroethylene + Drycleaners Perchloroethylene Chemical manufacture Polychlorinated biphenyls 4-Chlorobiphenyl + Electrical manufacturing 4,4 Dichlorobiphenyl Power station Railway yards Chlorinated phenol Pentachlorophenol + Timber treatment Landfills BTEX Benzene + + Oil production and storage Toluene Gas work sites Ethylbenzene Airports Xylene Paint manufacture Port facilities Railway yards Chemical manufacture Polyaromatic hydrocarbons Naphthalene + Oil production and storage (PAHs) Antracene Gas work sites Fluorene Coke plants Pyrene Engine works Benzo(a)pyrene Landfills Tar production and storage Boiler ash dump sites Power stations Pesticides Atrazine + + Agriculture Carbaryl Timber treatment Carbofuran Pesticide manufacture Coumphos Recreational areas ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 1. Nutrients Although the microorganisms are present in contaminated soil, they cannot necessarily be there in the numbers required for bioremediation of the site. Their growth and activity must be stimulated. Biostimulation usually involves the addition of nutrients and oxygen to help indigenous microorgan ­isms. These nutrients are the basic building blocks of life and allow microbes to create the necessary enzymes to break down the contaminants. All of them will need nitrogen, phosphorous, and carbon (e.g., see Table below). Carbon is the most basic element of living forms and is needed in greater quantities than other elements. In addition to hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen it constitutes about 95% of the weight of cells.Phosphorous and sulphur contribute with 70% of the remainders. The nutritional requirement of carbon to nitrogen ratio is 10:1, and carbon to phosphorous is 30:1. 3. Environmental requirements Optimum environmental conditions for the degradation of contaminants are reported in Table below: Parameters Condition required for microbial activity Optimum value for an oil degradation Soil moisture 25-28% of water holding capacity 30-90% Soil pH 5.5-8.8 6.5-8.0 Oxygen content Aerobic, minimum air-filled pore space of 10% 10-40% Nutrient content N and p for microbial growth C:N:P = 100:10:1 Temperature ( °C) 15-45 20-30 Contaminants Not too toxic Hydrocarbon 5-10% of dry weight of soil Heavy metals Total content 2000 ppm 700 ppm Type of soil Low clay or silt content 4. Environmental conditions affecting degradation Microbial growth and activity are readily affected by pH, temperature, and moisture. Although microorganisms have been also isolated in extreme conditions, most of them grow optimally over a nar ­row range, so that it is important to achieve optimal conditions. If the soil has too much acid it is possible to rinse the pH by adding lime. Temperature affects bio ­chemical reactions rates, and the rates of many of them double for each 10  °C rise in temperature. Above a certain temperature, however, the cells die. Plastic covering can be used to enhance solar warming in late spring, summer, and autumn. Available water is essential for all the living organisms, and irrigation is needed to achieve the optimal moisture level. The amount of available oxygen will determine whether the system is aerobic or anaerobic. Hydrocarbons are readily degraded under aerobic conditions, whereas chlorurate compounds are degraded only in anaerobic ones. To increase the oxygen amount in the soil it is possible to till or sparge air. In some cases, hydrogen peroxide or magnesium peroxide can be introduced in the environment. Soil structure controls the effective delivery of air, water, and nutrients. To improve soil structure, materials such as gypsum or organ ic matter can be applied. Low soil permeability can impede move ­ment of water, nutrients, and oxygen; hence, soils with low permeability may not be appropriate for in situ clean-up techniques. STRATEGIES AND TECHNIQUES INVOLVED IN BIOREMEDIATION Basically two types of techniques are involved in Bioremediation In situ Bioremediation (at the site) Ex situ Bioremediation (away from the site) In situ Bioremediation In situ techniques are defined as those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site with minimal disturbance. These techniques are generally the most desirable options due to lower cost and fewer disturbances since they provide the treatment in place avoiding excavation and transport of contaminants. In situ treatment is limited by the depth of the soil that can be effectively treated. In many soils effective oxygen diffusion for desirable rates of bioremediation extend to a range of only a few centimetres to about 30 cm into the soil, although depths of 60 cm and greater have been effectively treated in some cases. In situ Bioremediation types: Bioventing is the most common in situ treatment and involves supplying air and nutrients through wells to contaminated soil to stimulate the indigenous bacteria. Bioventing employs low air flow rates and provides only the amount of oxygen necessary for the biodegradation while minimizing volatiliza ­tion and release of contaminants to the atmosphere. It works for simple hydrocarbons and can be used where the contamination is deep under the surface. In situ biodegradation involves supplying oxygen and nutrients by circulating aqueous solutions through contaminated soils to stimulate naturally occurring bacteria to degrade organic contaminants. It can be used for soil and groundwater. Generally, this technique includes conditions such as the infil ­tration of water-containing nutrients and oxygen or other electron acceptors for groundwater treatment. Biosparging involves the injection of air under pressure below the water table to increase groundwater oxygen concentrations and enhance the rate of biological degradation of contam ­inants by naturally occurring bacteria. Biosparging increases the mixing in the saturated zone and there ­by increases the contact between soil and groundwater. The ease and low cost of installing small-diam ­eter air injection points allows considerable flexibility in the design and construction of the system Bioaugmentation. Bioremediation frequently involves the addition of microorganisms indigenous or exogenous to the contaminated sites. Two factors limit the use of added microbial cultures in a land treatment unit: 1) nonindigenous cultures rarely compete well enough with an indigenous population to develop and sustain useful population levels and 2) most soils with long-term exposure to biodegrad ­able waste have indigenous microorganisms that are effective degrades if the land treatment unit is well managed. Ex situ bioremediation Ex situ techniques are those that are applied to soil and groundwater at the site which has been removed from the site via excavation (soil) or pumping (water). These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Ex situ Bioremediation types: These techniques involve the excavation or removal of contaminated soil from ground. Landfarming is a simple technique in which contaminated soil is excavated and spread over a pre ­pared bed and periodically tilled until pollutants are degraded. The goal is to stimulate indigenous biodegradative microorganisms and facilitate their aerobic degradation of contaminants. In general, the practice is limited to the treatment of superficial 10-35 cm of soil. Since landfarming has the potential to reduce monitoring and maintenance costs, as well as clean-up liabilities, it has received much atten ­tion as a disposal alternative. Composting is a technique that involves combining contaminated soil with nonhazardous organ ­ic amendants such as manure or agricultural wastes. The presence of these organic materials supports the development of a rich microbial population and elevated temperature characteristic of composting. Biopiles are a hybrid of landfarming and composting. Essentially, engineered cells are con ­structed as aerated composted piles. Typically used for treatment of surface contamination with petro ­leum hydrocarbons they are a refined version of landfarming that tend to control physical losses of the contaminants by leaching and volatilization. Biopiles provide a favorable environment for indigenous aerobic and anaerobic microorganisms. Bioreactors Slurry reactors or aqueous reactors are used for ex situ treatment of contaminated soil and water pumped up from a contaminated plume. Bioremediation in reactors involves the pro ­cessing of contaminated solid material (soil, sediment, sludge) or water through an engineered con ­tainment system. A slurry bioreactor may be defined as a containment vessel and apparatus used to cre ­ate a three-phase (solid, liquid, and gas) mixing condition to increase the bioremediation rate of soil-bound and water-soluble pollutants as a water slurry of the contaminated soil and biomass (usually indigenous microorganisms) capable of degrading target contaminants. In general, the rate and extent of biodegradation are greater in a bioreactor system than in situ or in solid-phase systems because the contained environment is more manageable and hence more controllable and predictable. Despite the advantages of reactor systems, there are some disadvantages. The contaminated soil requires pre-treatment (e.g., excavation) or alternatively the contaminant can be stripped from the soil via soil washing or physical extraction (e.g., vacuum extraction) before being placed in a bioreactor. Monitoring bioremediation The process of bioremediation can be monitored indirectly by measuring the Oxidation Reduction Potential or redox in soil and groundwater, together with pH, temperature, oxygen content, electron acceptor/donor concentrations, and concentration of breakdown products (e.g. carbon dioxide). This table shows the (decreasing) biological breakdown rate as function of the redox potential. Process Reaction Redox potential (Eh in mV) Aerobic: O2 + 4eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 4H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ 2H2O 600 ~ 400 Anaerobic: Denitrification 2NO3à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 10eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 12H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ N2 + 6H2O 500 ~ 200 Manganese IV reduction MnO2 + 2eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 4H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Mn2+ + 2H2O 400 ~ 200 Iron III reduction Fe(OH)3 + eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 3H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ Fe2+ + 3H2O 300 ~ 100 Sulfate reduction SO42à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ + 8eà ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ +10 H+ à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ H2S + 4H2O 0 ~ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢150 Fermentation 2CH2O à ¢Ã¢â‚¬  Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ CO2 + CH4 à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢150 ~ à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢220 Types of Bioremediation Bioremediation techniques can be subdivided into various based on following factors Based on type of atmosphere in which Bioremediation takes place it can be divided into two types Engineered Bioremediation Intrinsic Bioremediation Based on Type of organism being used for Bioremediation Mycoremediation Phytoremediation ENGINEERED BIOREMEDIATION Factors effecting engineered bioremediation Contact between the microbes and the substrate Proper physical environment Nutrients Oxygen Absence of toxic compounds Sources of microorganisms From contaminated field sites(with varying environmental conditions subzero temperatures or extreme heat, desert conditions or in water, with excess of oxygen or in anaerobic conditions, with presence of hazardous compounds or on any waste stream) From culture collections Genetically Engineered Microorganisms (GEMs) Electro kinetically enhanced bioremediation (EEB) is a method of engineered bioremediation of soil contaminated by such organic compounds as solvents and petroleum products. As depicted schematically in the figure, EEB involves the utilization of controlled flows of liquids and gases into and out of the ground via wells, in conjunction with electrokinetic transport of matter through pores in the soil, to provide reagents and nutrients that enhance the natural degradation of contaminants by indigenous and/or introduced microorganisms. The operational parameters of an EEB setup can be tailored to obtain the desired flows of reagents and nutrients in variably textured and layered soils of variable hydraulic permeability and of moisture content that can range from saturation down to as little as about 7 percent. A major attractive feature of EEB is the ability to control the movements of charged anionic and cationic as well as noncharged chemical species. The basic components of electrokinetic enhancement of bioremediation are the following: * Ions are transported by electromigration; that is, with minimum transport of liquid through the soil. The ions of interest include nutrient agents, electron donors (e.g., lactate) or electron acceptors (e.g., nitrate or sulfate) added to the soil. Electromigration is utilized as an efficient mode of electrokinetic transport in vadosezone soils. * Water in soil is pumped (horizontally or vertically, depending on the positions of electrode wells) by induced electro-osmotic flow. Whereas the hydraulic flow used in older methods decreases with decreasing pore size and is thus not effective for treating tightly packed soil, electro-osmotic flow is less restricted by tight packing. Electro-osmosis is utilized to enhance the transport of both ions and such noncharged particles as micro-organisms, by moving water from anodes (positive electrodes) toward cathodes (negative electrodes). * Electrophoresis induced in soil under an applied electric field is used to control the transport and/or distribution of micro-organisms throughout the treated soil volume. The beneficial effect of electrophoresis can be augmented or otherwise modified by use of electro-osmotic flushing of the soil. * The applied electric current can be utilized to heat the soil to the optimum temperature for bioremediation. * The gaseous and liquid products of electrolysis of water in the soil are removed from electrode wells and mixed and reinjected into the ground as needed to maintain the pH of the soil within a range favorable for bioremediation. Disadvantages Mostly GEMs do not work the way we expect: Lab strains become food source for soil protozoa Inability of GEMs to contact the compounds to be degraded Failure of GEMs to survive/compete indigenous microorganisms. Mostly due to lack / decreased activity of House Keeping Genes. INTRINSIC BIOREMEDIATION It is a natural attenuation process that leads to the decrease in contaminant levels in a particular environment due to unmanaged physical, chemical and biological processes. Conversion of environmental pollutants into the harmless forms through the innate capabilities of naturally occurring microbial population is called intrinsic bioremediation. However, there is increasing interest on intrinsic bioremediation for control of all or some of the contamination at waste sites. The intrinsic i.e. inherent capacity of microorganism, to metabolize the contaminants should be tested at laboratory and field levels before use for intrinsic bioremediation. Through site monitoring programmes progress of intrinsic bioremediation should be recorded time to time. The conditions of site that favours intrinsic bioremediation are ground water flow throughout the year, carbonate minerals to buffer acidity produced during biodegradation supply of electron acceptors and nutrients for microbial growth and absence of toxic compounds. The other environmental factors such as pH concentration, temperature and nutrient availability determine whether or not biotransformation takes place. Bioremediation of waste mixtures containing metals such as Hg, Pb, As and cyanide at toxic concentration can create problem (Madsen, l99l). The ability of surface bacteria to degrade a given mixture of pollutants in ground water is dependent on the type and concentration of compounds, electron acceptor and duration of bacteria exposed to contaminants. Therefore, ability of indigenous bacteria degrading contaminants can be determined in laboratory by plate count and macrocosm studies Example: Microbes in Hudson River mud developed an ability to partially degrade PCB (Poly Chlorinated Biphenyls) Process occurs in two steps Partial dehalogenation of PCBs occurs naturally under anaerobic conditions Less chlorinated residues Then mud is aerated to promote the complete degradation of these less chlorinated residues MYCOREMEDIATION Mycoremediation is a form of bioremediation, the process of using fungi to return an environment (usually soil) contaminated by pollutants to a less contaminated state. The term Mycoremediation was coined by Paul Stam

Cathy’s Feelings for Edgar and Heathcliff Essay -- English Literature

Cathy’s Feelings for Edgar and Heathcliff ========================================= In this essay I am going to explain Cathy’s feelings for both Edgar Linton and Heathcliff. She had complex relationships with both Edgar and Heathcliff starting from when she was young. In her youth Cathy spent a lot of time with Heathcliff. This is the time when she first fell in love with him. She used to spend a lot of time running out to the moors with him. They would never be apart and shared everything with each other. The first time she met Edgar was when she went to Thrushcross grange. She stayed there for 5 weeks and came back cleaner and more sophisticated. The reason she went there was because Heathcliff herself snuck out to the moors. They went to thrushcross grange. But they were noticed through a window, by Edgar and his sister Isabelle. They took Cathy into the house, but not Heathcliff. When she came back from the grange, Cathy’s feelings hadn’t changed for Heathcliff but she felt that she was now in a higher social class to him and that she was distanced from him because of it. He thought that he was dirty. She said to him, â€Å" If you wash your face and brush your hair you will be alright.† This hurts Heathcliff. She hates it when Heathcliff is treated badly. She often expresses this. As Cathy gets older she starts to spend a lot more time with Edgar. After several visits to Wuthering Heights Edgar asks her to marry her and she accepts. She talks to Nelly (a housekeeper) about his proposal and she asks why she wants to marry him. She says it is because â€Å" he is handsome, young and cheerful, and rich and loves me.† Nelly doesn’t agree with her decision because she thinks the reasons aren’t good enou... ...e to either Heathcliff or Edgar. Both Edgar and Heathcliff are very upset. Heathcliff was angry that she died because they had began to show their love for each other again. He didn’t want to live in a world where he couldn’t find her. Heathcliff would rather be haunted by her. He says â€Å" you said I killed you- Haunt me then! The murdered do haunt their murderers.† This shows his distraught state of mind at the time of Cathy’s death. Edgar however, was less angry about her death and grieved more quietly. He acted very solitude. He had no communication with anyone for hours and did not sleep or eat. Up to her death, Catherine Linton’s feelings for Heathcliff did not change. She always loved him, even whilst she was married to Edgar. Her feelings for Edgar were also strong, but they were never quite as strong as for Heathcliff and Edgar resented this.

Frankenstein V Bladerunner Essay

In what ways does a comparative study accentuate the distinctive contexts of Frankenstein and Blade Runner? The comparative study of texts, allows audiences to investigate the changing nature and interpretation of issues relating to humanity as they are interpreted in different contexts. Context allows audiences to relate to and understand the thoughts, decisions and actions of individuals within a text. Context provides the opportunity to develop and shape a new genre or interpret an existing genre in a new way. The comparative study of context allows for audiences to compare the changing values of societies over time. Literary techniques such as allusions, imagery and dialogue is used to shape context and can be used by composers to entertain, inform or persuade an audience or highlight and provide insight into interesting or noteworthy points. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein (1831) and Ridley Scott’s Blade Runner (Directors Cut-1992) individually utilise literary techniques to establish the context of their text within its time. The comparative study of these two texts highlights how texts are inevitably a product of their time however both texts present issues that explore the intricacies and complexities of all human experience. Shelley and Scott utilise distinctive contexts to explore the nature of humanity and ultimately question what makes us human. Frankenstein and Blade Runner exist to highlight how context affects the perceptions of the audience in regards to how a text is received over time thus highlighting how a comparative study of texts can accentuate distinctive contexts. The comparative study of texts depends on the context used to establish a relationship with the audience. Mary Shelley’s fiction novel Frankenstein (1831) is a hybrid product of 18th century Gothic-Romanticism. The text reflects recent challenges to the social order as a result of the English industrial revolution and the French revolution during the second half of the 18th century which highlighted the empowerment of the working class. Frankenstein is a work of epistolary prose fiction that is explored through multiple narrators such as the ‘monster’, Victor Frankenstein and Robert Walton. Frankenstein exists as a didactic tale that explores the morality of trying to subvert god thus providing a lesson in patriarchal hubris highlighting the arrogance of scientific discovery without any consideration of the moral or ethical implications. Frankenstein consequently explores the nature of obsession in undermining parental and moral responsibility and evoking fear in the creation-fear of the world, fear of man. Subsequently the leading antagonist of Blade Runner, Roy Batty, further elucidates the arrogance of obsession as he explains his plight, stating, ‘Quite an experience to live in fear, isn’t it? That’s what it is to be a slave†. Batty provides insight into the failure of creators to understand the emotional development of the creation which leads to its isolation and fear, causing the ensuing destruction of the ‘natural order’. Frankenstein utilises the characterisation of Victor, ‘I have described myself as always having been imbued with a fervent longing to penetrate the secrets of nature’ to explore the obsession for knowledge that formed part of Shelley’s context. The text therefore reflects the influences of recent scientific development such as Galvanism and evolutionary thought. The comparative study of contrasting textual forms allows context to influence different interpretations of a text. Ridley Scott’s speculative science fiction film Blade Runner (1992) employs extensive mis-en-scene to subvert the audience’s sense of setting and history-a suspension of belief- enabling contextually dependant perceptions of the film. The films’ setting reflects its context as it echoes the concept of imperfect vision that conceptualises the short-sightedness inherent in the pursuit of perfection. The film juxtaposes the seemingly inherent ethical pretexts of discovery with the scientific community that seeks to create a perfect race, thus Blade Runner’s scientific context becomes reminiscent of fascist Nazi Aryan ideology, IVF programs and the Human Genome project. Conversely Frankenstein utilises its sublime Swiss setting to increase the plausibility of the themes which allow them to resonate with audiences as they relate to the texts context. Contrasting textual form is used to highlight how the context of each text enables their concurrent themes to resonate and remain relevant to 21st century audiences. Distinctive contexts are accentuated through similar theme content. Frankenstein and Blade Runner similarly indicate that efforts to ‘defy’ the natural order are responsible for the enduring sense of misery and alienation that sustains the overall melancholic tone of both texts. Animal Imagery is used extensively within Blade Runner to reveal the primal nature of raw, native emotionof the ‘replicants’, a reflection of parental neglect which renders them incapable of understanding their emotions. Similarly Frankenstein juxtaposes the idyllic nature of childhood with the abandonment of parental responsibility to highlight the confusion behind the monsters ‘ugly’ exterior, therefore provide insight into creations’ place as the ultimate innocent of both texts. Frankenstein and Blade Runner establish the creations’ as the victims of both physical and emotional negligence who ultimately confront their creator to correct the flaw which isolates them from the world. Frankenstein and Blade Runner similarly utilise content to highlight the creations as the source of destruction to reveal the true nature of monstrosity, the senseless creators. The pursuit of knowledge at the expense of a moral framework is identified as the creators’ ultimate fatal flaw. As the creations of both texts reflect upon and highlight their unnatural qualities, they reveal how their creators can no longer attain the sublime. Victor highlights his exile from the sublime as he recounts how his actions and subsequent inaction ‘deprives the soul both of hope and fear’ contributing to his demise. Frankenstein and Blade Runner similarly evoke a development of critical literacy and knowledge of genre at a macro level that enables distinctive contexts to gain prominence and influence the understanding or interpretation of their respective genres as a whole. The contextualisation of Frankenstein and Blade Runner is used to provide insight into the reception of texts as it challenges the contemporary values of the audience. Frankenstein draws parallels with Greek mythology as it establishes Victor as a modern Prometheus while also addressing elements of Jewish mysticism as the ‘monster’ exhibits qualities similar to the golem of Prague. The text is also reminiscent of Godwin and Wollstonecraft, however, is inherently less optimistic about society’s realistically attainable level of perfection, both physically and economically. In stark contrast, Blade Runner addresses perfection as achievable in a commercial sense ‘commerce is our goal here at Tyrell’ however as Deckard states ‘nobody is perfect’ he highlights the shortcomings of forgoing the moral obligations inherent in the pursuit of commerce which ultimately enable an evaluation of humanities moral boundaries. Blade Runner pays homage to the representation (particularly through film and television) of the 1950’s detective film-noir to reveal a rendition of post-modern expressionism. The reflection of commerce as a postmodern cultural imperative establishes the relationship between socio-economic status and pastiche consumption. Consequently, humanity is ‘created’ and traded with this ‘transformation of everything into commodity’ (Byers, 1990) becoming a reflection of the context of Blade Runner following the collapse of the Soviet Union and the economic strength of the United States during the films production. In essence the distinctive context of Frankenstein and Blade Runner reflects the interpretation and perception of the genre, textual form and content over time. The comparative study of these distinctive contrasting contexts allows audiences to reflect on the enduring power of parental and moral responsibility, deliberate action or inaction and the features that define humanity. The key reflections in which the audience understands how they are positioned by composers as a result of their context is especially important in allowing moral assessments throughout the text. Frankenstein and Blade Runner are two texts who successfully explore the nature in which humans interpret their humanity as a response to a contextualised stimulus. Blade Runner ultimately reveals the establishment of emotional understanding as a definitive characteristic of being human, while incidentally Frankenstein explores the features of humanities collective consciousness which enable an individual to belong through emotional dependence. The comparative study of Frankenstein and Blade Runner allows audiences gain a further understanding into the way contexts are accentuated through assessments of conceptualised fiction which explore the themes and issues which forms the unique identity of humanity.

buy custom Case Law essay

buy custom Case Law essay Case law is part of sources of law in many countries, and many judges make judgments basing on the decisions of previous judges. The case of Lumpkin, et al. v. Mellow Mushroom, et al. involves the parents of a deceased boy and Mellow Mushroom, which sales liquor. The case was filed in Court of Appeals of Georgia. The issue that was to be determined by the court was whether Mellow Mushroom was entitled to a summary judgment, and the court agreed that Mellow Mushrooms was entitled to the summary judgment. The Court arrived at its decision after observing the facts of the case, and making a careful consideration of the laws that governed the case. The Limpkins were supposed to prove that Mellow Mushrooms had a duty to the public, and the negligent acts of the defendant had led to the death of the young man. Furthermore, the plaintiffs were supposed to prove that they suffered some damage due to the acts of the defendant. However, the plaintiffs failed to prove that the acts of the defendant led to the death of their child. This is because there was contributory negligence on the part of their son. This is because the son accepted to be driven in a jeep that did not have a passengers door, and he untied his safety belt and hanged outside as the car was moving. Furthermore, the facts of the case showed that Lumpkin and Callaway had purchased other beers prior to the incident. Therefore, it was difficult to prove that the beer that they drank at Mellow Mushrooms was the one that contributed to the accident. Furthermore, the witnesses of the case failed to assert that the two were drunk when they left Mellow Mushrooms. In conclusion, the court offered the defendant a summary judgment, and the reasoning of the court was that the defendants negligence was not the proximate cause that led to the death. This is according to the provisions of legislation, and the provision of common law does not support the demands of the plaintiffs. Therefore, the plaintiffs had a duty to prove that the negligence acts of Mellow Mushrooms was had a causal relation to the death, and that the defendant had a duty to observe. Buy custom Case Law essay

Free Essays on America Was Built On Dreams

embodied the true American spirit. America has an extraordinary history when it comes to living the American dream. Abraham Lincoln stood tall and led us through the Civil War with the belief that the United States should have a new birth of freedom. Americans fought valiantly for the red, white, and blue in both World Wars, while the tomb of the Unknown Soldier still burns bright in the minds of Americans. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a courageous man with polio who could no longer walk with ease, brought the world’s aggressors to their knees as America triumphed in victory at the close of World War II. 58,202 American sons, daughters, mothers, and fathers are inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall with the sober reminder that the price of freedom is never free. While the Berlin Wall crashed down, the seeds of democracy stood up worldwide. Desert Shield and Desert Storm triumphed because of the leadership of two men who believed in the American dream. General Powell and General Schwarzkopf acted r apidly, stood their ground, and accomplished the impossible in record time. Many heroic American soldiers gave their lives for America. These men are gone, but not forgotten. The American dream would not have been possible without their valiant efforts. Never before have things changed so rapidly. Less than twenty years ago, the personal computer was just a dream. Today, powerful laptop computers, cellu... Free Essays on America Was Built On Dreams Free Essays on America Was Built On Dreams What is the American dream? Freedom, justice, life, and liberty are the basic elements of the American dream. America was built on these dreams. â€Å"Give me liberty or give me death† was once just a dream. Many years ago the people of the United States chose to take a risk and put their lives on the line, all for the American dream. Americans declared their independence in 1776 when Benjamin Franklin, in all his wisdom, stated, â€Å"We must all hang together or assuredly we shall all hang separately†. These words embodied the true American spirit. America has an extraordinary history when it comes to living the American dream. Abraham Lincoln stood tall and led us through the Civil War with the belief that the United States should have a new birth of freedom. Americans fought valiantly for the red, white, and blue in both World Wars, while the tomb of the Unknown Soldier still burns bright in the minds of Americans. Franklin Delano Roosevelt, a courageous man with polio who could no longer walk with ease, brought the world’s aggressors to their knees as America triumphed in victory at the close of World War II. 58,202 American sons, daughters, mothers, and fathers are inscribed on the Vietnam Veterans Memorial Wall with the sober reminder that the price of freedom is never free. While the Berlin Wall crashed down, the seeds of democracy stood up worldwide. Desert Shield and Desert Storm triumphed because of the leadership of two men who believed in the American dream. General Powell and General Schwarzkopf acted rapidly, stood their ground, and accomplished the impossible in record time. Many heroic American soldiers gave their lives for America. These men are gone, but not forgotten. The American dream would not have been possible without their valiant efforts. Never before have things changed so rapidly. Less than twenty years ago, the personal computer was just a dream. Today, powerful laptop computers, cellu...

Marriage Family and Counseling Essay Example

Marriage Family and Counseling Essay Example Marriage Family and Counseling Essay Marriage Family and Counseling Essay The structural family therapist goes about helping the entire family instead of singling out the specific person with the issues. When families have good relationships with each other it is mainly when each family member has their specified role and fulfills that role to its entirety. This type of psychotherapy was created by a researcher name Salvador Minuchin, from New York. The primary strategy of this therapy is to develop a bond between the family members that are aving problems within their family. The therapists goal in this theory is to develop a bond with every member of the family so he or she can figure what the problem is and how to solve it. The structural family theory also brings in a biblical perspective to psychology. This therapy will help shed a new light on now to be and what roles he wanted each of them to have. Introduction planned tamilies Every person in the world has a family. Some people may be closer to theirs than others but that does not negate the fact that they have a family. With that being said, each family has a different way of functioning. The majority of families raise children and they grow up to be fair adult citizens. Although the majority of families raise their children with no problems, there are still those that have their share of misconceptions. The structural theory specializes in individuality. It examines each person of the family with their own characteristics and aspirations, while being apart of their entire family. The basic concept to structural therapy looks at rules of a family, roles of each individual, wholeness and organization. ( Goldenberg Goldenberg, 2013). A therapist analyzing this data thinks that a person can either unction or not function. Functional families make changes and shifts as the members of the unit develop and go through different developmental stages (Becerra. , Michale. , 2012). A dysfunctional family is not open to change and seeks to keep the members of the unit stuck in the way things always have been and does not foster growth within the individuals members of the family. Becerra. , Michale. , 2012). Assumptions The relationship individuals have with their families is a source of mental stability for each individual. (Becerra. , Michale. , 2012). This theory thinks that when families alk to each other through speaking and non-verbal communication it is passed down through the generations of their family. Aside from those dysfunctions, structural therapists loo ks at the way families form family triangles, coalition, and family belief systems ( Goldenberg Goldenberg, 2013). Structural theory believes that every member of the family have a different role to play as it related to the workings of their family. Healthy families are not families that have no conflict, rather healthy families are able to see the conflict and handle it in an appropriate manner (Harway. , Kadin. , Gottlieb. , Nutt. Celano,. 2012). Everyones family has their own element of growth and sometimes this causes problems within the family. While going through these growing pains it causes the family members to not be able to adapt to things without their dysfunctional family. Development of The Theory Research was conducted and clinical data was collected on different family systems to understand the patterns ot psychosomatic tamilies. Research was conducted at the Philadelphia Child Guidance Center, where Salvador Minuchin was the director of the center (Goldenberg, Goldenberg, 2013). A vast majority of these families came rom normal homes with each of them having problems within their family. A psychosomatic family is when the child or children in the family develop severe psychosomatic problems as a result of their families dysfunction (Becerra. , Michale. 2012). While working with families that showed signs of a psychosomatic child, the goal was to change the structure of the relationship and develop boundaries, and to deal with underline conflict within the family system (Goldenberg, Goldenberg, 2013). Salvador Minuchin and his regime of researchers worked diligently while studying this theory and this is now one of the most influential heories of conducting solutions to family conflicts. Counseling Technique The main priority of the therapist is to find the solution to the families and help them discover what the roles should be in each family. Structural family therapists address current problems within the family instead of past events (Harway. , Kadin. , Gottlieb. , Nutt. , Celano. , 2012). One of the main Jobs of the therapist is to find new ways to hinder the present problems the family has and make sure that the problems do not reoccur. The families that do have a hard time solving their troubles need to have a ajor change in their roles as a family. There are many techniques that counselors employ while working to bring health to the family system. The main techniques are joining, boundary making, enactment, restructuring, and reframing (Hammond. Nichols. 2008). Boundary in this therapy basically states that there needs to be separation in the family but at the same time it needs to be known that each member of the family knows they have special meaning and are cared for by everyone else in the family. Counselors look to change the hierarchical relationship between the husband/father nd the rest of the family (Gold enberg, Goldenberg, 2013). When referring to enactment, this is stating that a counselor cannot take one persons side of the family favorably over the others. Counselors that take the side of one member over the other members will interfere with the creation of healthy family functioning (Goldenberg, Goldenberg, 2013). When the therapist sees that there are problems happening within the family he will exemplify positive patterns which can help the family outside of the counseling aspect. This is one factor that will help the families problems not be pissed on from generation to generation. When the therapist reframes with the family it means that they are coming up with new ways of viewing the problem. The old ways did not work or the therapist Just wants to give them a new perspective of the problem, hoping that the new way would be successful. Christian View A Christian view reters to having a biblical toundation in your lite and now they teel the presence of the Bible through their every day life and culture. Christians believe that every word in the bible is inspired by God. 2 Timothy 3:16-17 states that everything in the Bible is inspired by God, and profitable for doctrine, reproof, orrection, and instructions (Crabb. , 1977). A Christian views marriage and family as one of the greatest things ever created by God. All Christians know that we were all created in Gods image as a reflection of Gods glory. Everyones family is set up in a different and unique way. God created the family concept for the husband and father to be the leader of his wife and his children. God created Eve for Adam with the assumption that they would meet each others needs and have children together. Ephesians 5:25 says that Adams main objective should be to love his wife the was Christ loves the church. This is how all men should treat their wives and if not, it can lead to serious dysfunctional relationships and families. The wives number one priority should be to submit to her husband and to care for the children. The children should respect and mind their parents as long as the parents are still in a steady walk with Jesus Christ (Ephesians 6:1). Many families stray away from these simple concepts and it also leads to having a broken family. If families remain true to their Christian view of life and their culture within their family they can live happily and not be hindered by outside influences, lso known as the Devil. My personal family theory is the same as structural family therapy. When the therapist focuses on each individual of the family it creates a better way to deal with the problems that Christian and non-Christian families have. Structural family model looks at creating balance within the concepts of family dynamic. Structural therapist looks at defining family rules, roles, coalition, subsystems, boundaries, and wholeness (Goldenberg, Goldenberg, 2013). Dr. Crabb stated He looked at the life of Paul and stated that as believes we should do everything to please God and not man (Crabb, 977). When Christians are involved in counseling they should make sure that all of the counseling sessions not only help their family but also reflects God in every single aspect. Compare/Contrast Structural Family Therapy has a lot of similarities as family directed therapy. Family- directed therapy is a younger model of structural therapy, but with different aspects to the theory that structural family therapy doesnt look at (McLendon. , McLendon. , Petr. , 2005). Both of these types of therapies determine that the parents should care for the children, not the other way around. They also both show the families the positives in their system, the negatives, and what needs to be changed throughout their maturing process as a family. Family-directed therapy is more time limited and while working on goals that were set by members of the family (McLendon. , McLendon. , Petr. , 2005). In the structural therapy the family members do not set the goals for the members. The therapist sets them because he knows exactly where the weaknesses and the strong points of the family are. Conclusion Structural Therapy is a counseling model created by Salvador Minuchin and his crew f researchers. Much of the early research for the theory was done at an inner city to understand the how families functioned when high levels of poverty and single- mother lead homes where older child were more like a second parents in the family (Harway. , Kadin. , Gottlieb. , Nutt. , Celano. , 2012). The purpose for this theory is to aid families with providing them counseling and making their family functional in all ways. These counselors find ways to establish roles within the family system and to establish boundaries between the family members. The goal of the therapist with a Christian view is to strengthen the marriage, parent/child relationship and to help each family understand their role in their family. Christian counselors rely on God to help guide them into bringing change within the family unit. Bibliography Becerra, M. , Michale, M. (2012). Applying structural family therapy with a American family with children with disabilities. A case study of a single-parent mother. Journal of Applied Rehabilitation Counseling, 42(2), 17-24. Crabb, L (1977). Effective Biblical counseling: A model for helping caring Christians become capable counselors. Grand Rapids: Zondervan. Goldenberg, H. Goldenberg, l. (2013). Family therapy: An overview (8th ed. ). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole. Hammond, R. , Nichols, M. (2008). How collaborative is structural family therapy? The Family journal, 16(2), 118-124. dto: Harway, M. , Kadin, S. , Gottlieb, M. , Nutt, R. , Celano, M. (2012). Family psychology and systemic approaches: Working effectively in a variety of contexts. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 43(4), 315-327. dio: McLendon, D. , McLendon, T. , Petr, C. (2005). Family-directed structural therapy. Journal of Marital and Family Therapy, 31(4), 327-339. dio:

Coffee Industry in Vietnam Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Coffee Industry in Vietnam - Case Study Example Initially, coffee industry was run by government. The total area under coffee production in 1995 was 186,400 hectares and increased to 535,100 hectares by 2002. The coffee type mainly grown in Vietnam is Robusta, a relatively low quality coffee in comparison to Arabia. But Vietnam's coffee is of high quality and planted on mountainous areas because of "a large range of temperature between day and night and basaltic soil" (Sinh, Sutcliffe, and Van, 1999, p.68). The coffee produced in Boun Ma Thout is widely accepted by the customers due to its improved quality. In order to get a clear cut idea and gain a better understanding over the coffee industry in Vietnam, it is necessary to draw a dividing line over the periods of coffee industry in Vietnam stretching from 1996-97 to 1999-2000. During the first period, i.e. 1996-1997 due to the high price, coffee farmers were inspired to cultivate it more while the second period brought them to the world coffee market when it reached its peak level in 2001 as their domestic coffee demand was static. During this time, government brought the country's coffee industry to the highland regions and took effective production and export oriented programs. Boun Ma Thout Coffee Festival of 2005 was a turning point for Vietnamese coffee industry. In this festival, Hanoians came to see the entire process of coffee production - planting, harvesting, drying, roasting and grinding. Subsequent to this, they came to enjoy cup coffee. Such festivals have opened the doors for all to be familiar with coffee culture and at the same time help developing it. Current Scenario Mainly grown coffee type in Vietnam is Robusta. It grows in plenty in highland regions of Vietnam. Robusta has a relatively less potential to be affected by diseases and it needs less water supply. As the Vietnam began to earn huge currencies through importing this improved quality coffee at much higher rate, the policy makers tempted the farmers to cultivate it more. As a consequence of this, the farmers became somewhat blind to the coffee cultivation and began to cut down tropical trees along with other trees. As a result, at the end of late 1990s, the world coffee price fall down only because of Vietnamese overproduction. Restlessness of market price and the condition ordained on them let them facing a serious financial hardship. However, this led coffee farmers neglect densely planted "dollar trees" (Greenfield, March 2004) too. Again use of chemical fertilizer instead of organic fertilizer quickly fertilized and increased coffee production and ultimately affects on the long run fertilization. Standardization There is an urgent necessity to take proper initiatives for making the proper standardization of coffee industry for ensuring its perfection and better quality. Sinh, Sutcliffe, and Van (1999) states that- "General Department of Quality Control, the Polytechnic University, and the Department of Science, Technology and Quality Control and after reviewing the coffee standards of ISO and some countries such as Indonesia, Brazil, and the Standardization Committee of Vietnam Coffee Corporation (VINACAFE) has developed standards

Therapeutic Hypothermia Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Therapeutic Hypothermia - Essay Example This is so because paramedics who usually have to treat such patients initially do not have sufficient therapeutic means to stymie this neurologic damage process during ischemic conditions. Mild hypothermia () have been induced in patients with cardiac arrest as a therapeutic means for protecting the brain against the global ischemia that usually accompanies open-heart surgery (Nolan et al, 2003). This therapeutic means was available since the late 1950s after which it was discontinued for some time because there was indefinite indication of benefits to patients (Nolan et al, 2003). Much later, this means has again been reintroduced in the context of cardiac arrest for a select group of patients and there are positive indications that when this therapeutic means is used after return of spontaneous circulation after cardiac arrest there is improved functionality and preemption from histological defects to the brain. This is true of a number of animal models, including the human one (Nolan et al, 2003). ... gh stringent and complex inclusion criteria in Europe and Australia has established that neurological outcomes (ability to live independently and work at least part-time, etc.) are selectively available for groups of patients free from certain pathological complications (Nolan et al, 2003). Nevertheless, there are significant adverse effects that entail more research on the treatment option (Nolan et al, 2003). Mechanisms of action of induced moderate/mild hypothermia primarily include reduction of cerebral metabolic rate for oxygen @ 6% for every degree (Celsius) fall in temperature >. This reduces chances of mitochondrial damages and apoptosis from decreased production of free radicals, excitatory amino acids and calcium shifts (Nolan et al, 2003). External cooling techniques to induce mild to moderate hypothermia include use of cooling blankets, application of ice packs to groin, axillae and neck, use of wet towels and fanning and use of cooling helmets (Nolan et al, 2003). Recent internal techniques such as intravenous infusion of crystalloids and intravascular heat exchange devices are beginning to become available (Nolan et al, 2003). Since it is found that though extracorporeal techniques are efficient they are too invasive for use in prehospital treatments and most emergency departments this paper shall now discuss research on introducing a hypothermia therapeutic technique that is internal, safe, easily administrable out-of-hospital and cheap and includes infusion with selective crystalloids like common salt. This following section shall be deemed as the problem statement of the paper. Problem Statement: As has already been mentioned, the need for an internal technique that is not invasive and that can be performed safely and cheaply out of hospital and

Home Depot Financial Income Statement Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Home Depot Financial Income Statement - Essay Example Since the main purpose of business is to generate profits from its operations, the income statement is very important since it helps to show if the organization is in a position to achieve its goals. This helps the responsible authorities to make meaningful decisions that can help to improve the operations of the organization in the event that it has been recording losses. Decisions such as scaling down the operations of business if it has been making losses can be made using its income statement. On the other hand, a business can expand its operations if it has been operating profitably over a give n accounting period. For instance, the income statement of Home Depot’s Annual Report (2008, p. 18) shows that â€Å"Net Sales for fiscal 2008 decreased 7.8% to $71.3 billion from $77.3 billion for fiscal 2007.† On the other, â€Å"Gross Profit decreased 7.7% to $24.0 billion for fiscal 2008 from $26.0 billion for fiscal 2007 while operating expenses increased 4.7% to $17.8 billion for fiscal 2008 from $17.1 billion for fiscal 2007.† These statistics point a negative picture in the operations of the company and this is the reason why a decision to close underperforming stores during the first quarter of 2008 was made. Instead of making profits, the company has been recording losses in its operations. 2. The balance sheet of the company speaks volumes about its stock. The balance sheet of the company is mainly comprised of assets, liabilities as well as equity (Investopedia, 2014). The assets show things that are of value to the company and they can be converted into cash at any given period. On the other hand liabilities show what the company owes to others while equities represent earnings contributed by shareholders. A company’s balance sheet shows if the company is able to sustain its operations through creating a fine balance between what belongs to it and what it owes to others. In actual fact, a balance sheet is very important in

Discussion Week 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Week 6 - Essay Example This will speed up medical service delivery, which is a benefit to the public besides shunning pregnancy related mortalities (Lewis, 2012). The organization will result to unreasonable rising of fees, which is a detriment to the parents and those intending to access post secondary education (Levy & Walton, 2009). Consequently, this will yield to transferring of income from consumers to the high earning organization’s shareholders, hence affecting economy adversely (Levy & Walton, 2009). Besides, this widens gap between the rich and poor because the organization’s shareholders continue to enrich themselves at the expense of the struggling consumers (Levy & Walton, 2009). The major league will result to monopolizing all operations that relate to sports, hence extending to commerce. This is especially via advertising whereby corporations and other institutions intending to advertise their products will incur high expenses. Besides, there is a likelihood of top officials and related staffs failing to be accountable. This will translate to poor players’ enumerations and elevated stadium fees to the fans. Parties involved in these leagues will not have a chance to share ideas or transfer of players from one league to another. This deprives them numerous chances meant to stabilize their economies because each league will be operating as an entity due to unhealthy competition among them. Additionally, this will also extend to the fans and players whereby the latter may not be able to exploit their talents as expected thus fail to reach the international levels. If you have never had an experience with collaborative writing, explain whether or not you think you would enjoy this type of collaboration. If you had to produce a project this way, determine what you would do to ensure success. I will enjoy this mode of writing due to

How have attitudes in modern society changed in order to include Essay

How have attitudes in modern society changed in order to include people with Sen and disability - Essay Example Parents do not have adequate information on how to treat their kids, type of schools to take them, plus what to expect in their children (Burton 1996, p.33). For example, the city of Southampton has developed a way of helping children with Sen i.e. through early identification and intervention, improving the experience of the children and their families through clear and definite accessible information about services offered and also through building capacity through partnerships with other organizations. The local authority launched the Jigsaw service which brings about all health specialists and social care services for young people with learning disabilities under a single management. Services offered include; broadening the eligibility form to accommodate the child’s disability in the context of their family problem; strong focus on early child intervention and integrated working criteria between nurses and the social workers so that the kids will learn through a single well developed and integrated process (Burton 1996, p.27). There has been a strong focus on early identification, intervention and building capacities through strong established partnerships, with academic institutions to raise the levels and achievements of people with Sen. There are programs to support Sen Kids in schools. A lot of given work been conducted to improve the accessibility and number of information regarding the services and activities for the families of children with disabilities (Burton 1996, p.55). Disabled children like all other children experience bullying. These include; verbal abuse that can lead to their perceived impairment; physical violence particularly against children with physical disabilities; threats and intimidation; exclusion and isolation from their peer groups; manipulation and false friendships. Repeated bullying, which had not, been responded to have led the disabled kids to developing a negative self identity concerning their disability. Some kids have developed individualized responses in regards to b ullying. They feel that they should alienate themselves entirely from certain situations adapting their own behaviors’ (Burton 1996, p.66). Most of these kids fear reporting bullying when it happens due to the fear of retaliation, the teachers not believing them particularly amongst children suffering from Autistic Spectrum Disorder. Also, when these kids reported bullying to their teachers, they report often that the teachers never listen to them (Sally & Marian 1999, p.100). In order to prevent bullying, disabled kids believe that awareness should be created among other kids in order to understand and value disability. This should include disability awareness, equality trainings and vocations, lessons for teachers, students and even the staff to display positive picture of disability throughout the school. The disabled kids feel that these would develop their confidence and enable them build a positive self esteem and awareness of their rights of not to be bullied. Disabled children need to be understood. The staff and teachers should develop a positive and supportive relationship with the disabled kids (Burton 1996, p.82). The major discrimination that people with disabilities face is social discrimination. This often becomes

Racism in the Workforce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Racism in the Workforce - Essay Example In other words it can be said that with the increase of globalization most of the companies and organizations are multicultural in nature. This has helped them to bring together people with vast experience, cultural diversity, education and professional skills. However, when issues of racism arise in the work place, I believe it is destructive in nature. It restricts the individuals and will have a direct impact on their productivity. It destroys community cohesion and creates divisions in work place. I believe that it is the opposite of the democratic principle of equality. Additionally, this kind of destructive behavior results in domination of a particular group or individual. As a result the practices of that group or the individual are seen as the standard to which other cultural practices should conform. I feel that this is a wrong practice and it frequently and systematically advantages some ethnic and cultural groups and disadvantages others who do not belong to these groups. I have seen this happen to one of my colleague who belongs to a Negro community. She was talented and was perhaps much better performer when compared to many others in my organization. Every time she applied for her promotion, her application was rejected based on some reason.

Discussion Week 6 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion Week 6 - Essay Example This will speed up medical service delivery, which is a benefit to the public besides shunning pregnancy related mortalities (Lewis, 2012). The organization will result to unreasonable rising of fees, which is a detriment to the parents and those intending to access post secondary education (Levy & Walton, 2009). Consequently, this will yield to transferring of income from consumers to the high earning organization’s shareholders, hence affecting economy adversely (Levy & Walton, 2009). Besides, this widens gap between the rich and poor because the organization’s shareholders continue to enrich themselves at the expense of the struggling consumers (Levy & Walton, 2009). The major league will result to monopolizing all operations that relate to sports, hence extending to commerce. This is especially via advertising whereby corporations and other institutions intending to advertise their products will incur high expenses. Besides, there is a likelihood of top officials and related staffs failing to be accountable. This will translate to poor players’ enumerations and elevated stadium fees to the fans. Parties involved in these leagues will not have a chance to share ideas or transfer of players from one league to another. This deprives them numerous chances meant to stabilize their economies because each league will be operating as an entity due to unhealthy competition among them. Additionally, this will also extend to the fans and players whereby the latter may not be able to exploit their talents as expected thus fail to reach the international levels. If you have never had an experience with collaborative writing, explain whether or not you think you would enjoy this type of collaboration. If you had to produce a project this way, determine what you would do to ensure success. I will enjoy this mode of writing due to

Racism in the Workforce Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Racism in the Workforce - Essay Example In other words it can be said that with the increase of globalization most of the companies and organizations are multicultural in nature. This has helped them to bring together people with vast experience, cultural diversity, education and professional skills. However, when issues of racism arise in the work place, I believe it is destructive in nature. It restricts the individuals and will have a direct impact on their productivity. It destroys community cohesion and creates divisions in work place. I believe that it is the opposite of the democratic principle of equality. Additionally, this kind of destructive behavior results in domination of a particular group or individual. As a result the practices of that group or the individual are seen as the standard to which other cultural practices should conform. I feel that this is a wrong practice and it frequently and systematically advantages some ethnic and cultural groups and disadvantages others who do not belong to these groups. I have seen this happen to one of my colleague who belongs to a Negro community. She was talented and was perhaps much better performer when compared to many others in my organization. Every time she applied for her promotion, her application was rejected based on some reason.

Communication Methods Essay Example for Free

Communication Methods Essay Drugs are constantly under scrutiny from various organizations. The removal of medication is costly in product and reputation. However, it is important that withdrawal of a drug, which may affect the safety of patient’s withdrawal from the market, is imperative. Usually this prompts unexpected adverse effects that were not detected during clinical trials and apparent from surveillance of the data from the patient community. The scenario outlined involves the removal of medication from the shelves of hospitals, drugstores, and individuals home. It is imperative that communication reaches the masses in a concise and timely manner. The different types of communication are verbal, non-verbal, written and visual. Verbal communication simply involves face-to-face communication with another or group of people or communication over the telephone. For verbal communication, success requires the sender and receiver obtain what is required to make communication effective. When communicating verbally tone, dialect, and language are important factors (Cheesboro, O’Connor, Rios, 2010). Non-Verbal communication involves communicating without words. Non-Verbal communication ultimately ties in with verbal communication, without even speaking your body language, eye contact, posture, and facial expressions are all communicating. Cultures also exist with non-verbal communication. Cultural difference exist in the way people greet each other, what gestures mean, how far or how close to stand when interacting with someone and so forth (Cheesboro, O’Connor, Rios 2010). Written communication involves writing letters and emails. Written communication skills are just as important as verbal communication skills. Last, there is visual communication and the portrayal is through some form of visual aid such as; signs, drawings, power points, graphs and many others. When using visual communication verbal and written communication may be involved (Chessbor, O’Connor, Rios, 2010). Communication has advantages and disadvantages and traditional communication is still the number one form of communication to use if clarity is a primary factor. Traditional communication usually includes face to face or over the phone. When communicating face to face you always receives the opportunity to interact in a back and forth discussion. The use of non -verbal’s, facials and gestures maybe an advantage to some and a disadvantage to others. Disadvantages of traditional communication can be that conflict can be more intense and difficult to diffuse. Electronic communication is more prevalent but it still has its pros and cons. Many companies depend on electronic communication because information delivery occurs within different locations. There are also people that travel on their job and have no choice but to communicate through electronics. Not only is electronic communication fast and convenient it is the source of communication which allows for the responses and flexibility in replying. Despite the many advantages of electronic technology in the workplace, there are potential disadvantages including, the possibility of decreases patient safety, and breach of confidentiality (Broussard 2013). Many caregivers or physicians have mobile devices usually supplied by their organization. The concern with phones at one’s use at all time is the employee focus on sending a text or responding to an email versus delivery the appropriate care to the patient. Confidentiality concerns can come about form a simple phone conversation where names may not be spoken, but enough patient history and information is more than enough details. There is also the use of language. Being precise and complete is necessary when sending any form of electronic message (Cheesboro, O’Connor, Rios, 2010). Remembering basic grammar and formatting can go completely wrong. A professional email can become very unprofessional fast especially if the sender fails to review it prior to pressing send. With this concern comes the major issue of decrease in patient safety, possible violation of the HIPPA, patient safety, and breach of confidentiality.. Social media plays a major part in daily life for most people. Many advantages and disadvantages come along with using social media especially in a health care setting. First, the use of social media depends on the organization. Not every health organization is equipped or in need of the use of social media. However, when an organization does choose to use social media advantages can be the use of improved communication. Employees and others can discuss post and view new ideas and plans for the company (Society for Human Resources, 2012). There is an opportunity to gain more clients and reach a wider range of people especially if the organization is worldwide. Marketing opportunities are everywhere on social networks. Disadvantages can be employees misusing the social network. Potentially results in negative comments from employees  about the company or potential legal consequences if employees use these sites to view objectionable, illicit or offensive material (Society for Human Resources 2012). Technology is not perfect and is still prone to malfunctions. There is also the possibility of virus’ or hackers to come about when organizations are using social media. When a health organization uses social media it is important to have basic rules and regulation set in place to help ensure efficiency versus misuse. In the health care world, patient confidentiality is a primary concern. HIPPA is what help to protect patient’s personal medical information. Electronic and social media communication use in health care communication enforces patient security and adherence to Joint Commission guidelines and rules. Maintaining confidentiality, however, is becoming more difficult. It was easy to ensure the protection of individual privacy when files are in paper folders. It was not a perfect method, but it worked because information is powerful and it must be available for all to review. Information systems and other technology now allow instant retrieval of medical information, along with widening access for a greater number of people (McCall, 2000). The use of electronic and social media communication will ultimately affect HIPPA, because these forms of technology evolve in the health care world the HIPPA law must also transform and change continuously protect patients (McCall, 2000). The HIPPA law is in place to protect patients and although communicating through social media or any other form of electronics. The use of these forms of communication does put the exposure of private information risks. However, it is important for every health care organization to have their own set of rules and regulations to help prevent exposures. Each entity engaged in electronic transmission of health information must assess potential risks and vulnerabilities to the individual electronic health data. Organizations must develop, implement, maintain, and document appropriate security measures based on the risk assessment (Peterson 2001). In conclusion, health care and communication go hand in hand. Traditional communication is still at the forefront in health care when it comes to efficient communication. Electronic communication is very convenient and necessary when it comes to many different job types. Lastly, social media helps to market and bring in new ideas to the health care field. Overall, Traditional, Electronic, and social media will  continue to play a part in health care communication. As health care evolves communication, as well privacy and security methods must evolve as well. References Broussard, B. S., Broussard, A. B. (2013). Using Electronic Communication Safely in Health Care Settings. Nursing For Womens Health, 17(1), 59-62. doi:10.1111/1751-486X.12007. Retrieved from http://www.EBSCOhost.com Cheesboro, O’Connor, Rios. (2010) Communicating in the workplace. New York, New York: Pearson Education. McCall, M. (2000). HIPPA regulations:Challenges for perspective leaders. Surgical Services Management, 6(10), 18. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/237194292?accountid=458 Petersen, C. (2001). How private is private? HIPPA. SSM, 7(6), 49. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/237195101?accountid=458 Society For Human Resources, 2012. Social Media:What are the advantages and disadvantages of social networking sites? What should we include in a policy? Retrieved from http://www.societforhumanresources.org

Definition Of Change Management As An Organizational Capability Management Essay

Definition Of Change Management As An Organizational Capability Management Essay Able and How, an international management consultancy firm, specialises in helping clients solve their communications, change and people issues. The project saw the light when the group was working on a growth strategy for Rio Tinto . It was then that the group made a recommendation that said that the massive organization needs to have a capability to manage change and adapt itself to the volatile business environments in order to grow by 100% in the next 3 years!!! Problem Definition The tinkering over the recommendations lead the group to question, whether they can create a definition of change management as an organizational capability? If yes, whether there are any reliable and credible ways of assessing and benchmarking the same? The long term goal of the group is to create a sort of ranking system that would rate organizations on their ability to manage change or adapt itself successfully to the changing environments. Search for the Solution It was the combination of challenge, vagueness of the idea and the knowledge of the expertise at Cass, which lead to Able and How coming to Cass and specifically to Veronica Hope Hailey to help with project. Literature Review: The rapid changes in the business ecosystem create pressure on organizations to implement change initiatives to meet the demands of the stakeholders. Of late, the frequency and magnitude of change has increased. If anything one was to look at as a indicator of this, it would be the Fortune 1000 list of companies. The list shows that between 1973 and 1983, 35% of the companies in the top 20 were new, and this has increased to 60% when we compare the figures for years between 1993 and 2003. This indicates that increasingly more businesses are dealing with / managing changes in their organizations to stay ahead. At this point, one pertinent question that comes to our mind is what is change management? Change management, as defined in the Business and Management dictionary, is the coordination of a structured period of transition from situation A to situation B in order to achieve lasting change within an organization. Change management can be of varying scope, from continuous improvement, which involves small ongoing changes to existing processes, to radical and substantial change involving organizational strategy. Change management can be reactive or proactive. It can be instigated in reaction to something in an organizations external environment, for example, in the realms of economics, politics, legislation, or competition, or in reaction to something within the structures, processes, people, and events of the organizations internal environment. As a proactive measure, an organization might undergo change in anticipation of say, unfavourable economic conditions in the future. (Bloomsbury Business Library Business Management Dictionary 2007) Change management is a well-known and respected means to deal with budget cuts, volatile requirements, and other non stationary core reasons for project failures. The definition of change management includes at least four basic aspects: (1) the task of managing change, (2) an area of professional practice, (3) a body of knowledge, and (4) a control mechanism. Change can either be programmatic and planned or can be emergent, driven by unforeseen external events (Carl and et al, 2010). Boomer suggests that both academics and practitioners see change management capability as a strategic advantage and view change as a control mechanism, which typically results from standards, policies and processes. He goes further to define that as a body of knowledge, change management consists of methods, tools and techniques (Boomer 2008) to successfully manage the transition from one state to another. A lot of research work has taken place in this area, especially in the academic world. If one were to search for change management, in the past 20 years, in the business source complete, one could find that there are 2515 results in the category of academic journals out of a total of 4309. Moreover, the importance of the industry can be highlighted by the presence of the number of consulting firms with sophisticated tools and techniques to help clients manage change. However, even recent studies show that approximately 70% of all planned organizational change initiatives fail (Eaton, 2010). This leaves us wondering why The study done by Beer and Eisenstat in 2000, does talk about the top 6 silent killers of a change initaitive. They are Top-down or laissez-faire senior management style Unclear strategy and conflicting priorities An ineffective senior management team Poor vertical communication Poor coordination across functions, businesses or borders Inadequate down-the-line leadership skills and development (Beer and Eisenstat, 2000). A lot has been talked about in the academic literature and in practioners world of the prescriptive way to overcome these issues, however, not much has been done to identify the causal effect of these and the failures of change initiatives thereafter. As identified by Pellettiere, one of the main causes for these failures is the lack of a thorough diagnostic investigation in an organizations readiness and risk for a planned change. By a thorough diagnostic investigation, he intends to include both an external as well as an internal analysis using some form of an assessment to determine the need to change as well as an organizations readiness and risk involved in a planned change. He did identify that organizations have a tendency not to conduct a thorough internal analysis but rather have a propensity to initiate quick-fix solutions, sometimes ignoring the context, when implementing a change initiative (Pellettiere, 2006). As such, there have been numerous efforts to develop a scale to assess an enterprises managerial or organizational capabilities to change. Before we go an talk about a metric, let us try to define an organizations capacity for change. Organizations Capacity to Change When an organization undergoes a change, new organizational solutions have to be decided upon; product programs must be modified; positions must be reallocated; routines and policies must be revised; employees training programs need to be planned and implemented; and so on (Meyer Stensaker 2006). This requires a lot of effort. As such, as highlighted by Meyer and Stensaker (2006), organizations that have a capacity for creating multiple change processes in order to create sustainable change must not only have the ability (resources and capabilities) to change the organization successfully, they must also have capability to maintain daily operations and implement subsequent change processes. They defined change capacity as the allocation and development of change and operational capabilities that sustains long term performance (Meyer Stensaker 2006). An organizations capability in managing change should ensure that change should happen without destroying the well-functioning aspects in an organization or adversely affecting subsequent changes. This requires both capabilities to change in the short and long term as well as capabilities to maintain daily operations (Meyer Stensaker 2006). Gtaetz and Smith define it as a firms ability in initiating, managing and implementing critical changes in organizational structures and development processes (Graetz and Smith, 2005; Self et al., 2007). These refer to a firms ability to launch and implement large scale changes to develop organisational capabilities for rapid adaptation, flexibility and innovation (Graetz and Smith, 2005; Yanni Yan, Ding Mak 2009). This definition of change capability does give us an impression that the capability is a static advantage. It can be set in place by having the right processes and structures. If it is so prescriptive then why does it happen that there are organizations that are better off at changing because of some unknown factors. The answer to this was found in the extension of the RBV and the intersection of the same with change management capability. Savory (2006) attempted at extending the RBV concept and distinguished the terms resource, competence and capability. He defined resources as factors that are owned and controlled by the organization or available through alliances and other external relationships whereas competence is the ability to use the resources to an acceptable level of performance towards a desirable purpose. Further, he defined capabilities as the ability to operate a specific configuration of an organizations set of resources and dynamic capabilities as the ability to reconfigure both the use and coordination of a specific configuration and the development of new configurations of resources, according to changes in the organizations environment and strategic direction (Butler, 2009). Dynamic Capability We know the key ingredients of a successful planned change comprise of leadership, visioning, teamwork and communication, but in dynamic environments on the other hand, change can hardly be planned ex ante in a detailed and distinct manner. The most severe disadvantages of planned change can be seen by large losses in the short-term, a high probability of a relapse, issues coming up as an result of limited foresight, unadjusted takeover of best practice from a different context, ignorance of key contingencies, a possible implementation lag that makes change already outdated before completion and a lack of suitability for large-scale change matters (Weick, 2000; Burnes, 2004). One especially severe drawback for hypercompetitive environments is that planned change represses innovative behaviour and, thus, rejects the important innovators, innovations and adaptive processes for this context (Weick, 2000; Biedenbach SÃ ¶derholm 2008). These drawbacks have encouraged us to think of the proactive, emergent change. Such an approach supports experimentation, is sensitive to local contingencies, open to shortened and tightened feedback loops from results to action, is comprehensible and managable. However, also within emergent change there are some drawbacks such as due to its incremental nature the speed of change which is slow, outcomes might be too small and, thus, more appropriate for exploiting opportunities than countering threats. Weick (2000) suggests that such an emergent change, in general, is most suited for operational level change than a major strategic change, which however can be built up incrementally through smaller emerging changes. Moreover it is because of the diffuse and less focused character of emergent change that it is less likely to deliver a transformational shift (Weick, 2000; Biedenbach SÃ ¶derholm 2008). When we talk about organizational change capacity, it cannot be an activity performed in order to improve operations or products once the change has been implemented. Instead, it is an inherent and continuous ingredient of the firms activities that need to be incorporated as a capacity of regular operations. Organizational change is thus upgraded from being a one-off and unique activity, to a strategic capability of the successful companies in hypercompetitive or turbulent environments (Nadler and Tushman, 1999; Meyer and Stensaker, 2006; Biedenbach SÃ ¶derholm 2008). Flexibility and creativity, as per rhe Mckinsey Quarterly (april 2009), are very important for a successful organizational change. These all lead us to think that there exists some kind of dynamic capabilities in an organization that would enable it to proactively change to the external environment. Teece et al. (1997) define dynamic capabilities as firms ability to integrate, build, and reconfigure internal and external competences to address rapidly changing environments. In other words, independent of the line of business, technology applied or markets served, dynamic capabilities point to the ability to constantly change in order to respond to environmental changes, to overtake competitors and to maintain competitive advantages (Biedenbach SÃ ¶derholm 2008). The dynamic capability is an extension of the static resource based view, which fails to explain firms competitive advantage in changing environments (e.g., Priem Butler, 2001). As a result, Teece and colleagues proposed the dynamic capabilities framework to fill that gap. Teece et al. (1997). It seems that the concept dynamic capabilities was the one most suited for developing a theory on organizational capacity to change because of the focus of the theory on the organizational processes that enable growth and adaptation in changing environments (Eisenhardt and Martin, 2000; Teece et al., 1997). Moreover, such capabilities are grounded in organizational learning and managerial capabilities, the former, because organizational learning both leads to dynamic capabilities and is a dynamic capability (Zollo and Winter, 2002) and the latter as managers play crucial roles in developing organizational capabilities (Teece et al., 1997). The dynamic capabilities have actually taken up a strategic stage and subjugated the operational capabilities as zerolevel capabilities, being the how we earn a living now capabilities (Winter, 2003; Dixon, Meyer Day, 2010). Organization Capability for Change When we talk of a construct that would enable us to measure an organizations capacity to proactively change, one is lured to think of 3 antecedents, viz. organizational ambidexterity, environmental uncertainty and relative performance. Ambidexterity, which means doing 2 things at the same time, when extended to an organizational context, refers to the ability of organizations to achieve alignment in their current operations while also adapting effectively to changing environmental demands (Gibson and Birkinshaw, 2004). As conceptualized by Ghoshal and Bartlett (1994) ambidexterity builds on the 4 interdependent attributes, which are discipline, stretch, support, and trust. Discipline encourages individuals to voluntarily strive to meet all expectations generated by their explicit or implicit commitments. Stretch tempts members to voluntarily strive for more, rather than less, ambitious objectives. Support refers to the collective action of members to lend assistance and countenance to others. Finally, trust induces members to rely on the commitments of each other (Gibson and Birkinshaw, 2004). They argued that an organization needs to foster discipline and stretch to encourage individuals to push for ambitious goals, but it also needs support and trust to ensure that this happens within a cooperative environment. In terms of the yin and yang of continuous self-renewal (Ghoshal Bartlett, 1997): a balance between a pair of hard elements (discipline and stretch) and a pair of soft elements (support and trust) (Gibson and Birkinshaw, 2004). To understand the meaning of environmental uncertainty, another antecedent to the change capability, we need take each word at a time. Uncertainty, which is defined as an individuals perceived inability to predict something accurately because he/she perceives himself/herself to be lacking sufficient information to predict accurately or because he/she feels unable to discriminate between relevant data and irrelevant data (Gifford, Bobbitt, Slocum, 1979). The word environmental when attached to the term uncertainty, suggests that the source of the uncertainty is the organizations external environment. This uncertainty stems from the components of the environment (e,g, suppliers, competitors, government, distributors, consumers, etc) in which a company operates. Milliken (1987) said that the decision makers need to not only understand the particular source of environmental uncertainty, but also understand the type of environmental uncertainty. While specifying the source of uncertainty he refers to the domain of the environment which the decision maker is uncertain about (eg. competitors or suppliers). The type of uncertainty focuses on delineating the nature of the uncertainty being experienced. This could of 3 types, State uncertainty, Effect Uncertainty and Response uncertainty. State uncertainty refers to the inability in understanding how components of the environment might be changing. Effect uncertainty is defined as an inability to predict the nature of the impact of a future state of the environment on the organization. Response uncertaintys definition acknowledges the lack of knowledge of response options and/or the inability to predict the likely consequences of a response choice (Milliken, 1987). One of the reasons to construct a scale to measure an organizations capacity to change is to help the firm gain a competitive edge. This would mean superior performance. A firms performance depends on its strategy, but as per Bourgeois, (1980) the lack of consensus on means is more troublesome than disagreement on ends (final strategy). Also, a firms performance is affected by its organizational structures (centralised or decentralised), adaptive entities and decision problems (decomposable or non -decomposable) (Siggelkow and Levinthal, 2003). Based on the aforementioned 3 concepts, a new dynamic capability called organizational capacity for change (hereinafter referred to as OCC) was developed by Judge and Elenkov (2005). They conceptualize OCC as a dynamic organizational capability that allows the enterprise to adapt old capabilities to new threats and opportunities, as well as create new capabilities. More specifically, it is defined as the dynamic resource bundle comprised of effective human capital at varying levels of a business unit, with cultural predispositions toward innovation and accountability, and organizational systems that facilitate organizational change and transformation (Judge et al., 2009). OCC is defined as a meta-capability that enables an enterprise to regain or remain competitive with other enterprises through effective leadership, adaptive cultures, resilient employees, and an organizational infrastructure conducive to change. As suggested, it is different from Cohen and Leventhals (1990) absorptive capacity. Absorptive capacity focuses exclusively on organizational routines and processes while OCC focuses not only on the organizational routines and processes but also takes into account leadership talent and employee attitudes (Zahra and George 2002; Judge et al., 2009). Another construct that comes close to the OCC is the organizational readiness for change (Armenakis, Harris and Mossholder 1993),as both constructs deal with the organizations receptivity to change and organizational resilience. However, organizational readiness for change is focused exclusively on employee attitudes toward change, while OCC examines employee attitudes, leadership capabilities, and organizational infrastructure for bringing about change. In essence, OCC presents a comprehensive and as such, OCC is a bigger and more encompassing concept than absorptive capacity or organizational readiness for change (Judge et al., 2009). Having defined the Organization Capacity for Change, lets see how this has been developed as a construct in the organizational sciences that can be used by executives to prepare for and enhance their organizational change process, or for scholars to study the organizational change process. Building Blocks of the OCC Construct The construct was developed by an inductive process of assessing the works of several academics and practitioners in the area of organizational change over a period of 20 years. The construct has defined eight distinct but inter-related dimensions relating to the issues of human capabilities, formal organizational systems/processes and informal organizational culture (Judge and Douglas, 2009)*. [An earlier version of this paper was accepted for the 2006 Academy of Management Best Paper Proceedings for the Organization Development and Change Division.] [Insert the pic here] Sl. No. Dimension of OCC What does it mean? Referred Work 1 Trustworthy leadership Ability of senior executives to earn the trust of the rest of the organization and to show organizational members the way to meet its collective goals (Barney and Hansen, 1994) 2 Trusting followers Ability of the non-executive employees to constructively dissent with and/or willingly follow a new path advocated by its senior executives (Kelley, 1992) 3 Capable champions An ability of an organization to attract, retain, and empower change leaders to evolve and emerge (Kanter, 1983) 4 Involved mid-management The ability of middle managers to effectively link senior executives with the rest of the organization (Floyd and Wooldridge, 1996) 5 Innovative culture The ability of the organization to establish norms of innovation and encourage innovative activity (Kotter and Heskett, 1992) 6 Accountable culture Ability of the organization to carefully steward resources and successfully meet pre-determined deadlines (Ulrich et al., 1999) 7 Effective communication The ability of the organization to communicate vertically, horizontally, and with customers (Oshry, 1996) 8 Systems thinking The ability of the organization to focus on root causes and recognize the interdependencies within and outside the organizational boundaries (Kilmann, 1991) Not only have Judge and Douglas (2009) designed the construct, interestingly they have found significantly positive relationship between OCC and financial performance of companies. This co-relation lends support to the contention that OCC is a strategically important organizational capability, and that it may be a source of competitive advantage. This capability assumes all the more importance when the perceived environment uncertainty is high (Judge and Douglas, 2009). Judge and Douglas (2009) have attempted to make OCC construct as robust and relevant as possible by refining it while surveying 3,725 employees within 161 organizational units in a wide variety of industries during the period of 1999-2005. While they do intend to help leaders in one of the most difficult aspects of leading organizational change initiatives, which is the ability to diagnose and develop the organizations capacity for change (Bossidy and Charan, 2002), their study is not void of shortcomings. Neither does it take into account the size of the change nor does it measure the effects of the specific nature of the environment changes. The study is not free of regional bias, as all the findings are validated in a North American context. Moreover the construct has references to studies that are out-dated, the oldest one done in 1983. A lot of research has been taken place in each of the dimensions in the recent years. It will be worth exploring / expanding the ideas of the construct in the light of latest works. New findings Trustworthy Leadership: The construct talks about trustworthy leadership, but it will be worth understanding what attributes make leadership trustworthy. Ingenhoff and Sommer (2010) identified the 4 different dimensions that influence the degree of overall of trust, namely ability, integrity, benevolence, and information quality. They also identified trust as being significantly important for a companys ongoing success, as it strengthens the long-term relationship between stakeholders and the company (Ingenhoff and Sommer, 2010). Trust, which is correlated with greater information sharing, has been identified to reduce transaction costs. It is unique as a governance mechanism and also creates value in the exchange relationship (Dyer and Chu, 2003). Croonen, 2010, through his studies strengthened the findings of Brockner and Siegel, 1996; Krishnan et al. 2006; Mishra and Spreitzer, 1998 who have considered fairness as an important element of trust and says that it should be shown more often. Trusting followers: When subordinates trust their managers, they are willing to provide benefits in the form of extra effort toward job performance and OCB and should have more favourable attitudes toward the exchange relationship and be more willing to maintain it (Dirks Ferrin, 2002; Konovsky Pugh, 1994; Mayer Gavin, 2005). Every leaders top priority should be to establish trusting relationships in order to drive productive working environments, as a study by the Institute for Organizational Performance has revealed that trust alone predicts 46% of the difference between low and high performers (Mercurio, 2005). For this, it is not only sufficient for senior managers to be able to demonstrate that they are trustworthy, but also they have to trust their subordinates. Such trust-building practices involve exchange of information and the empowerment of employees (Cummings, 1983; Deluga, 1994; Folger Konovsky, 1989; Whitener, 1997). This does puts the manager in a more vulnerable position and organizations should help managers learn to use these procedures wisely (Brower et.al, 2009). It has been identified that effective followers play significant roles in fostering leadership and organizational effectiveness. Trusting followers leads to very effective employees, but requires the leaders put forth leadership over their specific area of work and requires honest upward communication. Such followers need to be dependent, loyal and co-operative (Agho, 2009). Capable Champions When we talk of capable champions, what skills and abilities are we referring to? In his book, The Change of Champions Field guide: Strategies and Tools for Leading Change in the New Era, Ulrich says that the winners in turbulent times will be the ones who are good at understanding the environmental and technological contingencies and leveraging them to the advantage of the organizational performance and excellence. It has been found that good change managers are very good at envisioning. They can see the future they want to create, the short and long-term wins they want to achieve. They are completely aware of the dynamics involved in developing adaptability, team-learning and responsiveness within the organization to achieve the desired win (Khan, 2006). We all know that change in an organization takes in 3 phases and each phase requires specialized skills. The table below gives a summary of same and has been adapted from the study done by Warrick, 2009 and the book Exploring Strategic Change by Veronica Hope Hailey and Julia Balogun (2008). [Refer to book by Veronica .. ] Stage of Change Role played by the Change Champion Skills Needed Mobilise Initiating Developing a change mindset Providing visionary leadership Involving key stakeholders and building commitment Well informed and cognizant of the issues and opportunities and knows how to get things done Move Facilitating Working with teams Working with people Networking and getting the right people together Sustain Implementing Planning and managing the change process Making things happen Motivating people Developing feedback mechanism to evaluate and monitor progress Persevering until the change succeeds (Warrick, 2009) For a successful change, change champions are required to create a creative culture, manage diversity, empower employees, maintaining organizational integrity, establish a just and fair reward system, create an environment of trust and inclusion that will really empower leaders and proponents of change to deal with any change process. Some additional skills are the use of appreciative enquiry, intuition and creativity (Khan, 2006; Warrick 2009). Involved Mid Management When we talk about line managers, researchers say that they can be of 2 types, the realists and the humanists. Realists are goal orientated and focus on getting things done, which includes things like developing a plan and a budget for the work and ensuring that the deadlines will be hit. On the other hand humanists, as the name suggests, focus on the people aspects-for example, making sure everybody understands and is committed to the plan, and figuring out how to handle any resistance to the plan (Axelrod, 2007). Axelrod (2007) further suggests that to get things done in an organization, one needs to bring together both the perspectives in his / her thought process and make it an all encompassing approach by moving beyond the usual suspects to include people who care about or stand to be affected by the initiative, people with relevant knowledge and expertise, and people whose authority is touched by the work. All change efforts need some element of fresh thinking and ways to overcome resistance. It has been found that innovative solutions can be obtained by including people with diverse points of view. Also, by bringing resisters, detractors, and other troublemakers onboard, one can reduce the resistance as it reduces the chance of stirring up trouble and distrust from the outside and might even convert the detractor to an instrumental team member (Axelrod, 2007). Axelrod has suggested some steps, for an involved middle management in a change effort. They are Keep the vision for the project front and center. Remind people whats going to be different as a result of your collective efforts. Give them regular progress reports about whats been achieved so far. Listen and value to the subordinates inputs. Communicate and celebrate the closure is very important too. (Axelrod, 2007). Innovative Culture Change is intended, amongst other reasons, to foster innovation and as suggested by Judge et.al. (2009), it also is one of the pillars that supports and organizations capacity to change. How do we foster innovation in an organization? The answer lay in leaders ability in fostering and developing innovation among their followers by having a vision and mission that encourage ideas from their workforce and actively seeks input from all departments and across all levels. It means giving followers the freedom to make decisions. This act enables employees to try out new ideas in a conducive environment and challenge themselves with a new way of thinking. With the ability to add to the work process, employees will begin interacting in a way that supports innovative ideas and influences the future of the business. It has been prescribed that with proper leadership training, accountability, and daily communication about leaderships responsibilities to foster creativity and trust, mid-level managers can rise to the standards necessary to inspire innovation and grow the next generation of innovative leaders (Agin and Gibson, 2010). When we talk about a culture, what would attributes would define an innovative culture? Daniels, 2010, discovered that innovative workplaces share six cultural characteristics. They are Dimension Meaning Context rich Information feed innovation. It would lead to a culture which ensures free-flowing communication so that innovators can draw on a rich background and perspective. Customer close Key to innovation lies at